
Class 
Book. 



.S'Rq>. 



{ " 7"' '^^ 



Copyright )j?. 



COFmiGHT DEPOSIT. 






THE SMALL 
COUNTRY PLACE 



^ 



THE SMALL 
COUNTRY PLACE 



BY 

SAMUEL T. MAYNARD 

n 

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE AT THE MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE ; BOTANIST AND TOMOLOGIST TO THE 
MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, ETC.; 
AUTHOR OF "LANDSCAPE GARDENING AS AP- 
PLIED TO HOME DECORATION," "SUC- 
CESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE," ETC. 



ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 

1908 



^ 



LIBRARY of 00N(5WeSs] 
TwoCopl«i Mectiwuc 

MAY 16 1908 

a«M*n«r.i tnvy 

j6r 






By J. 



Copyright, 1908 
B. LiPPiNCOTT Company 



Published May, 1908 



Printed by J. B. LipMncott Co7ii/any 
The M'ashingion Square Press, PJiiladelpJiia, U. S. A. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

The Suburban Home 13 

Advantages of Living in the Country ; Farming and Gar- 
dening for Pleasure or as a Business; The Home Owner 
and Home Seeker; Where Shall We Look for New 
Homes? Important Points to Consider: i. Healthful 
and Pleasant Surroundings; 2. Good Schools and 
Churches ; 3 . Congenial Social and Political Conditions ; 
4. Suitable Soil and Exposure; 5. Suitable Buildings; 
6. What are the Markets? 7. Good Roads; 8. Is there 
Woodland on the Place? 9. The Capital Required. 
Summary. 

CHAPTER II 

Remodelling and Improving Old Buildings 31 

First Make Buildings Healthful; Examine Sills; Roofs 
and Gutters; Shingles; Asphalt Roofing; Iron and 
Steel Roofing; Inside Conveniences; The Purity of the 
Water Supply; Sanitation; Improvement of Build- 
ings; The Tool House; Farming Tools; Poultry 
Houses; Barn, Stable and Carriage House, etc.; Shin- 
gling Old Buildings; Painting Old Buildings; Time to 
Paint; Kinds of Paint; Brushes and Painting. 

CHAPTER III 
Building New Houses 52 

Part I. 

Building Associations; A Definite Plan; Contract and 
Day Labor; The Most Important Points: Location; 
An Abundance of Windows; The Water Supply; 
Houses of Wood; The Frame; Cover Boards; Shin- 
gles; Finish; Floor Boards; Finishing Floors. 

5 



Contents 



Part II. 

Brick, Stone and Cement Houses: Brick Houses; 
Houses of Stone; Cement Buildings; Solid Walls; 
The Block System; The Cement and Sand; Mixing 
Cement and Sand; Cement for Outbuildings; Cement 
for Floors and Walks; Heating Country Houses: Hot- 
Water Heat, Hot-Air Heat, Steam Heat. 



CHAPTER IV 

The Decoration of Home Grounds 73 

Preserve all Naturally Beautiful Features; Time for 
Pruning Trees; Some of the Best Street and Avenue 
Trees; Home Decoration; Grading About the Build- 
ing; Roads and Walks; Underdraining Road-bed; 
Concrete Drives and Walks; Planting Trees and 
Shrubs; Where to Obtain Ornamentals; Time for 
Planting; Planting Evergreens; Arrangement of Trees 
and Shrubs; Fruit Trees as Ornamentals; List of 
Trees ; Ornamental Shrubs ; Grouping Shrubs ; Pruning 
Shrubs; List of Shrubs; Climbing Shrubs; Removing 
Walls and Fences. 

CHAPTER V 

The Lawn and Flower Garden 98 

The Lawn; Lawn Grasses; Time for Sowing Seed; 
Seeding Lawns; Weeds in Lawn; Water a Necessity; 
Improving Old Lawns; Lawn Mowers and Their Care; 
The Flower Garden; Cultivation of Wild Flowers; 
Lawn Perennials; Lawn Annuals and Bedding Plants; 
Biennials; Dutch Bulbs; Winter Protection for Hardy 
Plants; Window and Veranda Plants. 

CHAPTER VI 

The Family Garden 117 

Soil and Exposure ; Mixed Planting; Plans of Gardens ; 
Fruit Trees in Turf ; Cultivation of the Family Garden ; 
Summer Fertilization; Cold Frames and Hot-Beds; 
Starting Seeds; Poultry and the Famil}^ Garden. 



Contents 



CHAPTER VII 

Fruit Growing 130 

Equipment Required; Fruit Growing as a Business; 
Best Soil for the Apple ; Selection and Arrangement of 
Trees; Cultivation; A Cover Crop; Cost of an Apple 
Orchard; Apple Trees in Turf; Renovating Old Trees; 
Pruning Fruit Trees; Varieties; Harvesting the Apple 
Crop; Insect Pests; Dwarf Apples. 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Plums, Apricots and 

Nectarines 156 

The Pear: Kinds of Trees; Renovating Old Trees; 
Varieties; Harvesting the Fruit; Insects Injurious to 
the Pear; Fungous Pests. The Peach: Pruning for 
Planting; Marketing Peaches; Varieties of the Peach; 
Insects Injurious to the Peach; Fungous Pests. The 
Quince: Selection of Quince Trees; Marketing 
Quinces; Insects and Diseases. The Plum: Fungous 
Diseases of the Plum; Varieties; Marketing Plums. 
The Apricot: Varieties; Cultivation. The Nectarine: 
Cultivation; Varieties. The Cherry: Cultivation; 
Varieties; Marketing; Insect and Fungous Pests. 

CHAPTER IX 

The Grape 182 

Propagation; Pruning; Cultivation and Fertilization; 
Varieties; Marketing; Girdling; Insect and Fungous 
Pests. 

CHAPTER X 

The Bush Fruits 198 

Propagation of the Raspberry and the Blackberry ; Cul- 
tivation; Insects and Diseases; Varieties. The Cur- 
rant: Propagation and Cultivation; Varieties; Insect 
and Fungous Pests. The Gooseberry: Cultivation; 
Varieties. The Strawberry: Methods of Planting; 
Winter Protection; Harvesting the Fruit; Varieties; 
Insect and Fungous Pests. 



Contents 



CHAPTER XI 

Market Gardening 216 

General Observations and Directions; Fitting the 
Land; Planting; Asparagus; Beans: Varieties; 
Beets: Varieties; Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Brussels 
Sprouts, etc.: Cultivation; Varieties; Carrots: Cul- 
tivation; Varieties; Celery: Cultivation; Varieties; 
Sweet Com: Cultivation; Varieties; Lettuce: Culti- 
vation; Varieties; Melons: Cultivation; Varieties; 
Onions: Cultivation; Varieties; Peas: Cultivation; 
Varieties; Potatoes: Cultivation; Varieties; Rhu- 
barb; Squashes: Cultivation; Varieties; Tomatoes: 
Cultivation ; Varieties ; Turnips : Cultivation ; Varieties. 

CHAPTER Xn 

Poultry Keeping 241 

General Observations and Directions; Location; Poul- 
try Houses; Care of the Fowls; Raising Chickens; 
Feed; Production of Eggs; Roosts; Nests; Breeds of 
Poultry ; Pigeons . 

CHAPTER XIII 

Dairying, The Family Horse, and Bees 257 

General Observations; Milking; Keeping the Milk; 
Breeding; Dairying; The Milk Supply ; Keeping up the 
Standard; Purity; Raising Calves; Selecting the 
Family Cow; The Family Horse; The Stable; Water- 
ing; Carriages and Harnesses; Bees: The Apiary; 
The Hives; Surplus Honey; Swarming. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Monthly Calendar 270 

Directions for each Month's Work: The Land; Build- 
ings ; Stock ; Roads and Walks ; The Lawn ; Trees and 
Shrubs; The Flower Garden; Greenhouses and Sash; 
The Vegetable Garden; The Vineyard; Small Fruits; 
Fertilizers; Seeds; Poultry; Bees, etc. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Fig. I A Beautiful Country Home Frontispiece 

Fig. 2 A Cottage Home Valued at $1200 21 

Fig. 3 A Cottage Home Valued at $800 27 

Fig. 4a A Cottage House Before Remodelling 33 

Fig. 4b A Cottage House After Remodelling t^t^ 

Fig. 5 A Trap to Prevent Escape of Sewer Gas From 

Cesspools, etc 37 

Fig. 6 A Handy Tool-Room or Work-Shop 40 

Fig. 7 The Tool-Room. Farm Tools Hung on the Walls 

of the Barn Basement 41 

Fig. 8 A Modern Poultry House with Scratching Shed . . 43 
Fig. 9 A Modern System of Ventilating Stables, Poultry 

Houses, etc. . . . ! 45 

Fig. 10 A Small Shingled Building Covered with Vines; 

Grapevine above. Nasturtiums below 46 

A Modern Shingled House 48 

A Brick House in the Country 59 

The Construction of a Solid-Wall Concrete House 

Reinforced by Steel Rods 62 

A Stone Cottage in the Country 63 

Section of a Concrete Fire-Proof House with Solid 

Walls, Reinforced with Steel Rods 66 

A Cement Concrete House made of Hollow Blocks 67 

A Machine for Making Hollow Concrete Blocks . . 68 
A Tall Young Tree Showing Where to Cut to 

Make it Branch Low 74 

Fig. 19 A Norway Spruce Tree With Leading Shoot Cut 

off to Force Growth into the Lower Branches 7 5 

Fig. 20 The Result of Cutting off the Leading Shoot .... 75 
Fig. 21 Forked Branch of Tree Broken Down b}^ Ice, 

Repaired and Supported by Iron Rod 76 

Fig. 22 A Perfect Purple-Leaf Beech Tree, the Result of a 
Good Soil, a Northern Exposure and Plenty 

of Room 77 

Fig. 23 The Location of Drives and Walks 80 

Fig. 24 Another Plan of Drives and Walks 80 

9 



Fig. 


11 


Fig. 


12 


Fig- 


13 


Fig. 


14 


Fig. 


15 


Fig. 


16 


Fig. 


17 


Fig. 


18 



lO List of Illustrations 

PAGE 

How to Lay Out Drives and Walks 80 

Section of Road With Tile upon the Upper Side 

Only 81 

Section of Road With Drain Tile on Both Sides. . 81 
Trees and Shrubs Appropriately Arranged on the 

Lawn and in Front of the Dwelling 91 

Low Shrubs Arranged in Front of the Tall Ones . 93 

A Beautiful Shingled Summer House 95 

A Rose-Covered Porch 96 

Just Coming From the Flower Garden 103 

Native Shrubs and Ferns Arranged With Build- 
ing for Background 107 

How Peony and Other Herbaceous Perennial 

Roots are Divided for Transplanting no 

The Flower Garden; Bulbs in Bloom in Spring . . m 

Plan of Garden and Grounds 119 

Plan of Garden of Fruit, Flowers and Vegetables 120 

Plan of Garden of Fruit and Vegetables 121 

Mixed Garden and Farm Crops 122 

The Author's "Weed- Killer." Note the Wheel Hoe. 

Triangular Hoe, Rakes of two Widths, etc. . 124 

The Triangular Hoe ; How Made 125 

Young Apple Trees: (a) No. i, Two -Year- Old 

Tree Unpruned; (6), the Same After Pruning 137 

A Tall Apple Tree Before Pruning 142 

A Tall Apple Tree After Pruning 143 

A Tall Apple Tree at the End of the First 

Season After Pruning 144 

Grafting: How the Stock is Cut and Split 145 

Grafting: How the Scions are Cut 145 

Grafting: The Stock After the Wax Has Been 

Put On 146 

An Apple Tree One Year After Grafting 147 

An Apple Tree Three Years After Grafting 147 

An Old Orchard Pruned From Below Only 148 

An Old Orchard Before Pruning 148 

An Old Orchard After Pruning 149 

An Old Orchard the Autumn After Pruning 149 

A Perfectly Shaped Apple Tree, Produced by 

Cutting in the Tops 150 

A Convenient and Cheap Ladder for Working on 

Low Trees 155 



Fig. 


25 


Fig. 


26 


Fig. 


27 


Fig. 


28 


Fig. 


29 


Fig. 


30 


Fig. 


31 


Fig. 


32 


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33 


Fig. 


34 


Fig. 


35 


Fig. 


36 


Fig. 


37 


Fig 


38 


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39 


Fig. 


40 


Fig 


41 


Fig 


42 


Fig 


43 


Fig 


44 


Fig 


4 5 


Fig 


46 


Fig 


47 


Fig 


48 


Fig 


49 


Fig 


50 


Fig 


51 


Fig 


52 


Fig 


53 


Fig 


54 


Fig 
Fig 


55 
56 



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58 


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59 


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60 


Fig. 


61 


Fig. 


62 


Fig. 


63 


Fig. 


64 


Fig. 


65 



List of Illustrations 1 1 

PAGE 

Fig. 57 A Three -Year - Old Peach Orchard in Summer 

Growth 162 

A Peach Tree Unpruned for Four Years 1 63 

A Four- Year-Old Peach Tree Before Pruning .... 164 

A Four- Year-Old Peach Tree After Pruning 164 

Pear and Quince Trees and Blackberries in the 

Poultry Yard 169 

Plum Trees over Thirty Years Old 173 

Currant Bushes under Plum and Apricot Trees . . 179 

A Small Vineyard 183 

Stable Ornamented by a Grapevine Fifty 

Years Old 185 

Fig. 66 Single Grapevine Pruned and Fruiting; Cane Tied 

to the Top Wire 187 

Fig. 67 A Single Vine with Fruit on Top Wire 188 

Fig. 68 Grapevine in the Garden Unpruned for Five 

Years 189 

Fig. 69 Grapevine in the Garden after Pruning 190 

Fig. 70 Grapevine in the Garden in September. In full 

Foliage and Fruit 191 

Fig. 71 Sprayed and Unsprayed Vines: First and Third 
Vines Sprayed; Second and Fourth Un- 
sprayed 195 

Fig. 72 Trellis with Cross Supports for Raspberry and 

Blackberry Canes 200 

Trellis Without Cross Supports 200 

Strawberry Plants in Hills 207 

Strawberry Field Planted in the Double Hedge- 
Row System 208 

The Strawberry Harvest 211 

The Hot-Bed; Note Sash, Mats and Shutters .... 218 

A Small Greenhouse 218 

Late Cabbages Following Strawberries. Black- 
berry Field in the Distance 224 

Fig. 80 A Movable Summer Colony-House for About 
Fifteen Hens, or a Larger Number of Chick- 
ens. Open View 242 

Same as Fig. 80. Closed View 242 

Poultry in the Raspberry Patch 243 

A Modern Poultry House With Scratching Shed 

Between Two Pens 245 



Fig. 


73 


Fig. 


74 


Fig. 


75 


Fig. 


76 


Fig. 


77 


Fig. 


78 


Fig. 


79 



Fig. 


81 


Fig. 


82 


Fig. 


83 



12 List of Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig. 84 A Model Incubator; One of the Necessities for 

Profitable Poultry Growing 248 

Fig. 85 A Model Brooder. Where the Chickens are Kept 

After Being Taken From the Incubator . . 249 

Fig. 86 Poultry in the Asparagus Field 251 

Fig. 87 A Pigeon Loft 255 

Fig. 88 The Family Cow 258 

Fig. 89 The Family Horse 265 

Fig. 90 A Modern Apiary 267 

Fig. 91 January. After School and Before Chores 271 

Fig. 92 Pruning From the Top Down . . .' 273 

Fig. 93 February. Making Quick Work of the Wood-Pile 276 

Fig. 94 March. Sugaring Scene in Vermont 281 

Fig. 95 May. The Beginning of the Strawberry Crop ... 290 
Fig. 96 July. Currants and Gooseberries Ripen This 

Month 297 

Fig. 97 September. Harvesting the Grape Crop 304 

Fig. 98 October. Sorting and Packing Apples 306 

Fig. 99 November. Raising Turkeys Almost a Lost Art . 312 

Fig. 1 00 December. A Christmas Tree 316 



The Small Country Place 



CHAPTER I 



The Suburban Home ; Advantages of 
Living in the Country 

THE ideal place to live is in the country, even 
though one's business is in the city. In the 
country one is more independent, and free 
from much of the formalism and many of the whims 
of modern society; and may have elbow room, so to 
speak, with pure fresh air on every side, and quiet 
from the constant interruptions of the crowds encoun- 
tered in a busy and bu§tling city. Too many of our 
people are crowded into the limited space of the cities 
and never see the broad and beautiful fields and wooded 
hills, or breathe the pure air that is laden with the 
rich perfume of the fields and woods. They know 
nothing of birds and flowers, the wonders of plant 
and animal life, or the broadening effect of daily 
contact with Nature in her various moods. 

With the modem methods of travel one may live in 
the country and work or attend to an established busi- 
ness, often requiring but a few hours each day, and have 
the remaining time to devote to the garden, growing 
fruits or vegetables, caring for poultry, bees, etc. He 
can thus have an abundance of fresh fruit and vege- 
tables, milk, poultry, eggs, etc., for his own table, the 
supply of neighbors, or the local market. A small gar- 
den skilfully cared for may be made to produce a won- 

13 



14 The Small Country Place 

derful amount of fresh fruit and vegetables in such a 
condition as cannot be found in the local markets; and 
larger areas may be profitably planted if one has a little 
capital and becomes skilled in growing garden crops. 
One may keep the family cow and horse, too, as family 
pets, and the smaller pets (poultry, dog or cat), with 
both pleasure and profit. 

There is no place like the country in which to bring 
up children. Everywhere about them are Nature's 
realities, not the narrow creations of man. They learn 
to take responsibilities, become self reliant by the care 
of the cow, the horse, and the chickens, and by working 
in the garden; and, best of all, they can be with father 
and mother, sharing with them the cares of the house- 
hold, the sports of rural life, and the pleasures of home. 
They can have a workshop where they may gain skill in 
using hand and eye. In the summer they can have the 
sports of swimming and boating, and in winter coast- 
ing, skating, and snow-shoeing in the broad free expanse 
of hill and dale. 

Where the area of land is sufficient, help may be em- 
ployed in the garden. The man of all work, who must 
often be kept about the suburban home, may spend 
spare hours profitably in caring for the garden crops. 
Many a small village lot has been made to yield a con- 
siderable income from crops of lettuce, cucumbers, roses, 
carnations, violets, etc., grown under glass; and larger 
areas of only a few acres have produced income enough, 
from outdoor vegetables and fruits, to pay the necessary 
help and yield a good living to the owner. 

The small farmer with a few acres feels the influence 
of modem methods, and farm life is shorn of many of 
the trials and social deprivations of a half century ago. 
Then the farmer worked alone, cultivating a small area 
of such crops as were needed for home consumption, see- 



The Suburban Home i^* 

ing little of the world beyond the narrow circle about 
him, living in a barren little world of his own. Today he 
may know, by means of the daily paper and the tele- 
phone, what is taking place in the remotest parts of the 
earth; and the quick methods of travel enable him to 
mingle with the crowds of the metropolis for business or 
pleasure. By this association with men under a great 
variety of conditions and close contact with ever-chang- 
ing Nature, he becomes a broader and more fully devel- 
oped man than is possible for those who are confined to 
more routine work, doing the same task day by day, 
year in and year out. 

Farming and Gardening for Pleasure 
OR AS A Business. 

Farming or gardening as a business offers especial in- 
ducements at the present time. In no other country 
are there so many well-to-do people, and the consump- 
tion of choice fruits and vegetables is steadily increasing. 
We have the best home markets in the world, and other 
countries are calling for our surplus products. Choice 
fruits and vegetables and all dairy products are in de- 
mand at good prices, but the growers of these must 
compete more or less with the growers of countries 
where labor is cheap and conditions the most favorable. 
Tropical fruits and vegetables are being put into our 
markets in immense quantities, and unless we produce 
the finest qualities these will be used in preference to 
home products. If our people cannot obtain choice 
apples, grapes, strawberries, or other native fruits, they 
will buy bananas, pineapples, oranges, etc., which are 
sold in our markets at low prices. 

With these cheap-labor competitors producing fruits 
and vegetables that come to our markets at all seasons 
of the year, our farmers need to put forth all their energy 



i6 The Small Country Place 

and skill to put into the markets products that will be 
equal if not superior to those received from the South 
and other countries, often months after they are har- 
vested. This we can do. There is no country in the 
world that can produce better fruits (large and small) 
and vegetables than ours, and most of our more perish- 
able small fruits and vegetables can be put into the 
hands of the consumer in so much more perfect condi- 
tion than those shipped from. distant points, that choice 
home products are sure to be in demand at good prices. 
Even during the winter, at the North, we may success- 
fully compete with tropical countries in producing, 
under glass, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce, and other 
hot-house products. 

The small farm is often more profitable than a large 
one. Too many farmers are land poor, while many 
have made fortunes on a few acres. 

The city. man with his family, tired of the rush and 
fever of city life, may often find desired rest and an 
abundant support on the small farm, if he will give close 
attention to the work and carry it on upon the business 
principles in vogue in the large city enterprises in which 
he was only an insignificant part. While dependent 
upon his own efforts for support he is independent of 
rules and restraints of exacting employers whose main 
effort is to get as much as possible out of their employees 
for the smallest possible wage. 

The Home Owner and Home Seeker. 

The readers whom this book is intended to aid may 
be grouped into (i) those seeking new homes for health, 
pleasanter surroundings, and freedom from the rush and 
bustle of the city, and who may not be dependent upon 
the land for their support; (2) those who already own 
small places that they wish to improve and make more 



The Suburban Home 17 

profitable; and (3) those of both classes who are wholly 
dependent upon their crops for a livelihood. 

To the home seeker who consults the lists of real estate 
agents or the advertising columns of the agricultural 
papers it would seem that almost every land-owner 
wanted to sell. The number of places thus offered for 
sale however is but a very small fraction of the desirable 
homes occupied by those who do not wish to sell. It is 
true that the rural population in many sections changes 
frequently, often by death of old residents, the younger 
members of the family having gone to seek their for- 
tunes in cities, where large enterprises attract them. 
Some fail in their efforts for want of w^orking capital or 
because of improperly directed labor, and try other 
fields of effort. Among the farms thus coming into 
the market, now and then may be found an ideal place, 
but the majority will require capital, and often long, hard 
work, to put them into comfortable and profitable con- 
dition. There are in almost every section of the coun- 
try small places that will make good homes and may 
be improved so as to yield profitable returns, when con- 
ducted on intelligent business principles. 

Where Shall We Look for New Homes? 

Temperament, health and individual taste must deter- 
mine whether one should locate North or South, East or 
West. For each location superior advantages will be 
claimed, but there are in every section some special con- 
ditions w^hich the home seeker should consider. Points 
that should have special attention wherever we locate are : 

1. Healthful and pleasant surroundings. 

2. Good schools and churches. 

3. Congenial social and political conditions. 

4. Soil and exposure suited to the business to be 
followed. 



l8 The Small Country Place 

5. Suitable buildings. 

6. Accessible markets. 

7. Good roads and facilities for transporting produce 
and getting to and from centres of business with which 
one must keep in touch for the greatest success. 

8. Is there woodland on the place? 

9. Capital required for our enterprises 

I. Healthful and Pleasant Surroundings. 

The most important question to be answered in look- 
ing for a home in the country is, are there any unheal th- 
ful conditions either about or near the building? With- 
out healthful surroundings one can hardly expect good 
health, without which few will be successful in business 
or take much pleasure in life. The house and stable 
cellars should be carefully inspected. If the soil about 
them is springy, tile drains should be laid so as to carry 
off all water that otherwise would settle into the cellars. 
The location of the stable cellar, yard, or cesspools, etc., 
as related to the water supply must be studied. If within 
two hundred feet, or in some cases even further away, 
the surface water will certainly settle into these deep 
basins, and become foul and a menace to health. The 
water from long-established wells, even in the country, 
is often more dangerous than that from those more re- 
cently made in more thickly settled sections. The safest 
water for family use is that from well aerated basins, or 
from rain-water from the roof after being filtered through 
brick or sand. Deep driven wells generally supply water 
free from objectionable organic matter, but may contain 
mineral elements that make the water hard or more or 
less unheal thful. From whatever source the water sup- 
ply comes, the only way to be sure of its purity and 
healthfulness is to have samples analyzed by some board 
of health or experiment station, of which there is one or 



The Suburban Home ig 

more in every state, where such work is done at a nom- 
inal cost. 

High elevations, where there is good drainage of the 
surface water away from the buildings, should be looked 
for, and yet in northern sections the buildings should if 
possible be sheltered by windbreaks of hills or trees 
from north and east winds. While the mercury will not 
go as low upon hills of moderate height as in the valleys, 
moving air is more uncomfortable than still air. Many 
crops, too, succeed better when in full exposure to air 
and sunlight on our small hills. Low malarial locations, 
near stagnant streams and pools, should be avoided, for 
no diseases are more insidious and difficult to cure than 
the germ diseases contracted in such localities. 

2. A7'e There Good Schools and Churches? 

In selecting a home, I shall place good schools and 
churches next in importance to healthful surroundings. 
In these days of business strife and competition no one 
can expect to be successful in the highest degree without 
at least a fair education; and apart from its bearing on 
business success or failure, the educated man or woman 
can enjoy more, and be able to do more good to those 
about them, than the uneducated. Wherever we find 
good schools, we find intelligent and peace-loving citizens. 
Churches, too, are a good index of the moral conditions 
of any community. While all church-goers are not 
always above reproach in their dealings with their fellow- 
men, the average standard of a church-going community 
is far above that of the non-church goers, and the habit 
of setting apart one day each week for attendance upon 
divine worship, and for home recreation with one's fam- 
ily, cannot be too earnestly urged. The moral character 
and thrift of a community should be fully studied. In- 
dustrious people are as a rule peaceable and contented, 



20 The Small Country Place 

and those who have their time well occupied with their 
own affairs have little time in which to make trouble for 
others. A community of thrifty people should be se- 
lected if possible. Wasteful people soon come to want, 
and this often leads to social disorders of many kinds. 

3. A Congenial Social and Political Community 
Desirable. 

Man is naturally a social being ^nd needs the associa- 
tion of his fellows in order to reach his fullest develop- 
ment. In an uncongenial community one is inclined 
to draw within oneself, which soon leads to egotistical 
and narrow views of life. While much can be done by 
precept and by personal example toward improving 
social conditions, such efforts are likely to be more fruit- 
ful and life is much more enjoyable in a community 
where the majority are in sympathy with each other and 
united in their efforts to promote the general welfare. In 
union of effort there is strength. 

4. What is the Land Suited to Grow f 

Before we start out in our efforts to improve the farm, 
we must first decide what lines of agriculture or horti- 
culture we are best qualified to follow, and what the land 
is best suited to produce. The margin for profit in grow- 
ing any of the farm or garden crops is very small, and 
unless the soil and other conditions are favorable, and 
the work be skilfully done, there is sure to be little profit 
if not actual loss. If we decide to grow fruits, and wish 
land suited for them, we would select rather heavy 
moist land — good grass land — for the apples, pears, 
currants, raspberries and blackberries. The vegetables 
that succeed upon this kind of land are cabbages, cauli- 
flower, celery, etc. Light, medium loamy soil, with a 
southern exposure, is well adapted to the growth of 



The Suburban Home 



21 



small fruits, grapes, peaches, early vegetables of all 
kinds, melons, squashes, and poultry. Very thin light 
soil may be useful for crops that mature early, before 
the usual droughty season comes on, like asparagus, 
beets, beans, early lettuce, etc. A northern slope, if in 
full exposure to sunlight and air, is well suited to the 
growth of apples, peaches, late strawberries, raspberries 
and blackberries, cabbages, turnips, dandelions, etc. The 




Fig. 2— a Cottage Home, after Remodelling. Valued at S1200, 

greatest possibilities of any piece of land cannot certainly 
be determined by examination, and as much as possible 
concerning its production for the past three or four 
years should be learned from the previous owner or 
from the neighbors. It may require several years with 
trial crops to determine its adaptability, and it is best 
therefore at first not to risk large areas in experimental 
crops. We may generally expect, however, by the lib- 
eral application of stable manure and other fertilizers, 



22 The Small Country Place 

and thorough and constant tillage, that paying crops 
may be grown. It must be borne in mind that in taking 
up a new business, or in changing methods or location, 
some time may elapse before all of the conditions for 
success are mastered. This is especially the case with 
lines of agriculture and horticulture, where our capital 
can be turned and where we can see and profit by the 
results of a trial of any variety or method but once in 
a year. The success of a crop the first year will also 
depend much upon what crop was grown upon the 
land the previous year, and perhaps for a series of three 
or four years. 

5. What Buildings Must We Have ? 

Buildings are the most expensive part of the equip- 
ment of the country home or small farm, and the num- 
ber and size of the buildings needed for the business in 
hand will depend largely upon the size of the family and 
the amount of land to be cultivated. If our means are 
limited, we cannot afford large and costly buildings 
and a few good, well-lighted and healthful rooms that 
can be made comfortable in all weathers will suffice to 
start with. A small dwelling-house and small outbuild- 
ings with some space between them, to which additions 
can be made as the business or other conditions require, 
are better to start with than large buildings that must 
be cared for and continually kept in repair. If possible 
all the rooms in the house should have the sun some 
portion of the day, especially the living and sleeping 
rooms. If we are purchasing a home, we must carefully 
inspect the foundation and sills, for many buildings that 
are apparently sound upon the outside, will be found in 
a sad state of decay under the sheathing or finish inside, 
which will lead to no end of trouble and expense. Ex- 
amine the chimneys carefully, for in old buildings there 



The Suburban Home I3 

are often openings between the bricks, where the mortar 
has fallen out, endangering the wood- work near should 
the accumulating soot take fire. A large proportion of 
country fires are due to defective flues. One should 
select buildings, if possible, with the sills well up from 
the ground upon good underpinning of stone or brick. 
This ensures the sills from decay and allows for good 
ventilation of the cellar. Enough stable room and out- 
buildings should be provided to properly protect all 
animals and tools from the weather. By a systematic 
arrangement a large number of tools may be kept within 
a small space. More of our agricultural tools rust out 
than wear out. Rapid and good work cannot be done 
with rusty tools. 

6. What Are the Markets f 

To grow a crop successfully and cheaply, and be able 
to sell it to the best advantage, requires talents possessed 
by but few individuals. The market where produce may 
be sold should be carefully investigated. If within 
teaming distance, or where express trains run frequently, 
one may look for good prices for choice products, while 
small markets soon become glutted and prices will be 
low, even for the best. The business of supplying the 
non-producing population with fruit and vegetables has 
changed greatly in the last two decades. Few families 
now lay in a supply of these articles for winter's use, but 
depend upon the peddler or the retail grocer for their 
needs from day to day. Instead of buying a bushel of 
potatoes, beets, or turnips, a barrel of apples, etc., they 
buy in much smaller quantities. To supply the con- 
sumer in this manner requires the grower either to 
"peddle" or to sell his products to those who are in the 
retail or peddling business. If he sells to the peddler, 
he must be satisfied to give him a large per cent, of profit. 



24 



The Small Country Place 



If he peddles, he must give up a large amount of time 
that is valuable in growing the crops, and it is very diffi- 
cult to hire men who will do either the garden work or 
the peddling well, except under the eye of the owner. 

There is at the present time a tendency in all lines of 
business to combine producing large quantities or culti- 
vating large areas under one management. The small 
farmer is not exempt from this necessity of combining 
with others to obtain the greatest profit, but by doing his 
own work largely and supplying the consumer at first 
hand he may retain his independence and receive reason- 
able compensation for his labor. By cooperation in the 
purchase and use of modern machinery, fertilizers, and 
supplies, the protection of crops from insects and fungous 
pests, the small farmers may be more successful finan- 
cially and still be men of broad and varied training and 
not the narrow, mere machines which those who work for 
large corporations are likely to become. Specializing in 
farming is as much a necessity as in other callings, for the 
best results. The man who devotes his whole time to 
growing asparagus, strawberries, or apples, will be sure to 
grow a better product than if a large number of crops are 
grown, but he runs the risk of losing all by the destruc- 
tion of the crop by insects, frosts, or unfavorable 
weather. We should have one or more sure money crops 
and take our chances with two or three more that under 
favorable conditions, prompt effort and skill on our part 
are generally profitable. Thus asparagus, apples, and 
strawberries are reasonably sure to be profitable under 
fair treatment, while peaches, grapes, celery, squashes, 
etc., are more dependent upon weather conditions and 
may sometimes fail even with our best efforts. 

A location near markets has many advantages. If 
within easy driving distance one can be frequently in the 
markets, keep their condition closely in mind and sell 



The Suburban Home 25 

or hold as supply or prices may render advisable. The 
cost of teaming our products, if the distance be not 
great, may be reduced to the minimum by taking return 
loads of stable manure or other supplies back to the farm 
with little or no loss of time. 

On the other hand land is more expensive in locations 
near the markets. If one is on a good line of railroad 
where trains run frequently and freight and express rates 
are not excessive he can often send heavy produce long 
distances by rail cheaper than by team. The close com- 
munication with the markets is, however, lost and he is 
dependent upon the commission man or the market 
reports. 

7. Are the Roads Good ? 

Much of success in business and comfort of living in 
the country depends upon good roads. If we are a con- 
siderable distance from post-office, stores, schools, 
churches, etc., good roads will help wonderfully in the 
travel to and from them. If we must take our produce 
a long distance to market or to the railroad station, 
good roads will reduce the wear and tear of wagons, 
horses, and harness, and consequently the cost of getting 
it to market. If one is located on a line of state or 
macadam road he will find it smooth and passable at all 
seasons of the year, while the ordinary country road is 
often impassable for heavy loads in the winter or spring. 
Good roads cannot be made without good road material. 
If there is only sand or clay with which to build roads 
they will be poor and only small loads can be drawn over 
them. Nor can a good road be made upon land satur- 
ated with water without first unde --drain '.ng the road- 
bed. Furthermore, the surface should be crowned at 
least two inches to the foot, and the poorer the material 
the greater must be this crowning. If roads are hollowed 



26 The Small Country Place 

out in the middle water will stand in these depressions 
and the road material will be rapidly worn to dust 
which will fly to every one's discomfort during dry, hot 
weather or to mud in the rainy season. In northern sec- 
tions if possible we should locate on roads where the 
snow does not drift badly in the winter, making it diffi- 
cult or impossible to get out without much hard work 
after heavy storms. 

In many sections trolley, lines are carrying farm prod- 
uce to market or to the steam roads whence it goes to 
market to be sold by one's representative or by the 
commission man. This method of disposing of our farm 
products has not become as general as it should. Trolley 
lines should be compelled to give the people better 
facilities than they now enjoy in compensation for the 
almost unlimited privileges granted them. 

8. Is There Woodland on the Place ? 

In these days, when timber is being used up so rap- 
idly, the supply is fast decreasing and the price is going 
higher every year, it is a great advantage to have a 
wood-lot or timber trees upon the place. We must have 
more or less wood for our fires, and lumber for repairs 
for fences even upon the smallest place, and many 
devices and conveniences, and a small area properly 
cared for will supply a large number of these wants. 
Then a grove or "woodsy" place where we may take a 
stroll in perfect quiet, or with the family or friends, is 
one of the greatest luxuries of country life. As a rule 
woodland is not held at high prices in most country dis- 
tricts. It may be purchased at from $io to $50 per 
acre according to the amount of wood and lumber upon 
it. If located upon the north or west of the building 
the force of prevailing cold winds will be broken and 
the place be much more comfortable. 



The Suburban Home 29 

9. The Capital Required. 

One can hardly expect to go into the business of run- 
ning even a small farm without some capital, either in 
ready cash, a place well equipped with tools and supplies, 
or a large amount of health and vigor to put into the pro- 
duction of crops that shall early yield an income for the 
support of the family and to pay any interest and the 
taxes that are inevitable. The amount of capital needed 
will depend upon what are the prospects for an income 
early in the season, from poultry, asparagus, straw- 
berries, or other sources that yield returns before the 
main crops mature, and w^hat expenses must be met for 
the family, for fertilizers, labor, grain, tools, etc. With a 
farm owned or rented, a capital of from a few hundred 
dollars to perhaps one thousand dollars may be needed, 
according to the above conditions. By the neighborly 
exchange of labor and use of tools the cost of equip- 
ment may be much reduced, but it is much more satis- 
factory for each farmer to own all ordinary tools and 
machines, that he may be able to use them whenever 
needed without inconveniencing any one. Careful ac- 
counts should be kept from the first, and if possible 
nothing should be purchased until the money is in hand, 
to pay for it. With all the risks and chances with pests 
and wind and weather, this is the only safe course until 
we have something laid aside upon which to draw for 
investment or for increase of business. 

Summary. 

With all the foregoing points in mind, those who plan 
to purchase or rent new places should begin a systematic 
and persistent search, looking over lists of real-estate 
agents, inquiring of friends, and using every means 
possible until the right place is found. This may be 



3© The Small Country Place 

"early in the game, " or we may have to look about for 
weeks or months. One would hardly expect to find every- 
thing desired ready-made for him. The land may be just 
to our ideas but the buildings in a decayed or unsatisfac- 
tory condition; or the buildings may be just what we 
want but the land not quite right as to exposure or soil, 
with too many large rocks or boulders upon it, or it may 
be in an exhausted condition from neglect. As it is the 
land from which we are to obtain our income, those who 
are dependent upon it wholly for support must give this 
the closest attention. If the land is simply run down 
from neglect, but of naturally good quality, we may 
renovate it at small expense. If very uneven or full of 
large rocks it will require much expense to take out the 
rocks and put it in good condition to cultivate profitably. 
Small farms of from five to ten acres may often be found 
in desirable locations at from $i,ooo to $3,000, in many 
cases for less than the value of building at the present 
prices of lumber and labor. Fig. i (Frontispiece) shows 
a place valued at $3,500, Fig. 2 one at $1,200, and Fig. 
3 one valued at $800. 

Farm property located not too far from railroads is 
considered good for investments and if one has not much 
capital a good place may be mortgaged for one-half to 
two-thirds value. 



CHAPTER II 



Remodelling and Improving Old Buildings 

THE owner of a small farm will find that whether 
he has occupied it a long time or has just pur- 
chased it and is about to make a new depart- 
ure in his business, more or less changing, repairing and 
improving will be needed. If one is not familiar with 
this kind of work an expert should be consulted. 
Fig. 4a shows a house before remodelling. Fig. 46 the 
same after changes are completed. 

Utilize all Old Material. 

With the high price of lumber, which is rapidly in- 
creasing, every one should make the most of what good 
material there may be in old buildings upon the place 
before building new ones. There are a great many old 
buildings which may be repaired for much less than new 
ones would cost, and when these are not worth repair- 
ing much of the lumber may be used in other buildings. 
This may be rough and more or less full of nails, and 
carpenters do not like to work it over with nice tools, 
but with the ordinary tools that one should keep for 
such work it may be sorted out and cleaned up at odd 
times so as not to cost as much as new lumber. It is on 
the ground, no money need be paid for it, there is so 
much good material saved to the world, and perhaps 
best of all, an unsightly object is obliterated or changed 
into something of utility and possibly of beauty. The 
frames of most old buildings are very heavy, many of 

31 



32 The Small Country Place 

the posts and plates being large enough for sills of 
modern buildings, while rafters are large enough for 
posts and plates. It is thoroughly seasoned and when 
fitted in place will be less liable to warp than new 
lumber. 

First Make Buildings and Surroundings Healthful. 

As when deciding about the location and surroundings 
of the house, the healthfulness in and about old build- 
ings is by far more important than any other considera- 
tion. Search should be made from cellar to attic, through 
and about every building, for anything that would pos- 
sibly produce unhealthful conditions. Begin with the 
cellars. See that surface water or that from springs does 
not run in through the walls, making it damp and 
malarial. See that the water supply for the house and 
stable has not become contaminated by drainage from 
the cesspool, sink or stable. 

Examine the Sills. 

About the first thing to need renewing, especially 
when the buildings are set low, are the sills, and these 
are often the most costly to repair. As soon as the foun- 
dation begins to settle or the sills become soft, there is a 
settling of the frame above, the windows and doors be- 
come tight, the walls crack and soon extensive repairs 
may have to be made. At the first indication of this, 
jack-screws should be put under, these parts raised into 
place and substantially supported. All foundation walls, 
piers, or other supports should be laid below frost line, 
which will vary in different sections from two to four 
feet. A "stitch in time" will often save much loss and 
sometimes prevent serious accidents. The best mate- 
rial for sills where exposed to much wet or in poorly ven- 
tilated places is chestnut or cypress. Should the build- 




Fig. 4 a — ^A Cottage Housk Befork R 



KMODELUNG. 




Fig. 4 6 — ^A Cottage House After Remodellinc 



Remodelling Old Buildings 35 

ing be set low, so that the sills are constantly wet, it 
might be economy to raise the whole building to a foun- 
dation a foot or two higher and put in windows, so that 
the inside sills and floor timbers may be kept dry, under 
which condition they will not decay any more rapidly 
than other parts of the frame. 

Roofs and Gutters. 

Next after the foundation and sills the roofs should 
have attention; in fact, no part of a building will last 
long under a leaky roof. If the leaky condition is due to 
decayed shingles they should be replaced by new or 
some of the asphalt roofing materials, many of which 
if carefully laid, the joints well cemented, and after- 
wards given a coat of asphalt every two or three years, 
will last a long time. Good clear butts spruce shingles 
are perhaps cheaper in the end than these roofing ma- 
terials, but the first cost is more and more skilled laborers 
are needed to put them on. Roof gutters and spaces 
about chimneys should have careful attention and tin, 
lead, or asphalt roofing, well cemented, be laid so wide, 
that the water will not set back and run through to the 
rooms below. To prevent water from setting back 
from the eaves during severe cold weather in winter, 
two or three thicknesses of ordinary building paper 
should be laid under the shingles, or other roofing ma- 
terial. Where warmth in the rooms immediately under 
the roof is desired, building paper should first be laid. 
Many poultry-houses are built with side Avails well 
lined with paper and then shingled, while the roof (the 
most exposed part) is shingled upon only open jointed 
boards, the cold dropping quickly to the floor, and no 
amount of side covering will make them warm. 



36 The Small Country Place 

Slate Shingles. 

If one can afford the expense, slate shingles are more 
durable and cheaper in the end if well laid. It is the 
practice in some localities to lay slate shingles over old 
wood shingles. If the latter are fairly good and all in 
place this makes a much warmer roof, and is to be 
recommended. Should the old lining-boards be rough 
and uneven when the old shingles are removed, two 
thicknesses of ordinary building paper will enable slate 
shingles to be safely laid. 

Iron and Steel Roofing. 

Iron and steel roofing materials are being offered at a 
very low price, but most of them last only a short time, 
rusting out quickly when exposed to the weather. If 
these roofings are thoroughly painted on the under side 
before laying and given a heavy coat of paint on the 
outside every two or three years they make a fairly sat- 
isfactory roof. 

Heavy tin and thickly galvanized iron or steel make 
more serviceable roofs than the above. 

Inside Conveniences; Water. 

Nothing adds so much to the economy of housework 
and comfortable living as an abundance of water, sup- 
plied without the labor of pumping or carrying it. 
Running water from springs or some town or city supply 
is the most satisfactory. When this is not available, the 
supply may be forced into an elevated tank by wind- 
mill, ram or gasoline engine. When there is a never- 
failing small stream with sufficient fall the hydraulic 
ram is very satisfactory. 

For many years past windmills have been largely 
used to force water into the supply-tanks, but most of 



Remodelling Old Buildings 37 

them are likely to soon wear out or get out of order, 
being exposed to high winds and gales, and they are now 
being replaced by gasoline or hot-air engines; when an 
engine is properly installed, well protected, and care- 
fully used, it will last a long time and the water supply 
is insured whether the wind blows or not. 

Purity of the Water. 

Town and city water supplies are generally carefully 
inspected by local authorities or state officials and are 
safer than water from local wells or basins. Before any 
water supply is used freely it should be carefully in- 
spected and if any doubt exists as to its purity samples 
should be sent to experiment stations, state boards of 
health, or other authorities whose duty it is to analyze 
such supply. 

Bath-rooms, hot and cold water, and water-closets 
should be put into every country home, wherever pos- 
sible. These can be arranged in a small space, and if 
the water cannot be supplied in any other way, a good 
force-pump will do the work of supplying the tank in 
the attic in an hour or two each day. A very small 
expenditure for so great a luxury. 

Sanitation. 

Wherever waste water is carried into cesspools or 
vaults the pipes must be provided with proper traps 
and escapes to prevent the 
gas from these places from 
entering the buildings 
(Fig. 5). All traps should 
be placed where they may be 
easily gotten at and cleaned 

out in case of stoppage, and -?^^ 

where thev will not freeze in ^'?f-£~f.?i''^Pf *° Prevent Escape 

01 bewer uas from Cesspools, Etc. 




38 The Small Country Place 

severe weather. If a very large amount of foul matter is 
going through the trap it will soon become unsafe and 
should be cleaned at short intervals. A vent-pipe for the 
escape of gases from below the trap should be put in, in 
all cases. Cisterns and cesspools should be cleaned out at 
least once each year and the latter more frequently if 
necessary. Where the cesspool is in springy soil an 
overflow pipe should be put in a little below this pipe 
so that the flow into it may not become clogged with 
solid matter which generally rises to the surface. 

Bay and Dormer Windows, Porches, Verandas, 
Piazzas, Etc. 

Many old country houses have been very much im- 
proved and beautified by some of the above-mentioned 
features. Thus a dark, poorly lighted room may often 
be made light and sunny by the addition of a project- 
ing or bay window from the side or end. If upon the 
north, the projection may be such as to catch the sun's 
rays morning and evening. If upon the south, and the 
space is not otherwise needed, it may serve as a con- 
servatory where the house plants can be cared for with 
but little effort. Dormer windows may often be put into 
the roof (see Fig. 2) in such a way as to make additional 
rooms in the attic that are well lighted and sunny. 
Covered porches and storm-doors add much to the com- 
fort of the family in stormy weather and may be made 
to add beauty to the house as well. 

Piazzas and verandas are often a great luxury. 
On the north in summer and the south side in the 
winter they afford quiet resting-places for invalids or 
those wearied by toil of any kind. These need not 
be expensive structures. A simple, light, but strong 
frame covered with sound boards and tin planed and 
beaded on the under side so that they may be neatly 



Remodelling Old Buildings 39 

painted will suffice. If given but a slight pitch and 
covered with heavy tin laid flat this will make sufficient 
cover for the floor below and serve as the floor of a bal- 
cony above. The heavy verandas and piazzas built to 
many of our dwellings often overbalance the rest of the 
structure and add to its cost more than is warranted. 
The open veranda or platform over which an awning 
is placed (see Fig. 2) in the summer and in stormy 
weather has the advantage that the windows opening 
out upon it need not be shaded unless desired, and in 
pleasant weather one may be out in full exposure to sun- 
light and air. The shingled veranda adds much of beauty 
and comfort to old country houses. 

Repairs of Outbuildings. 

The wood-shed, storage-room and tool-rooms are per- 
haps of next importance. Besides storing a sufficient 
supply of wood for the year, the shed should be large 
enough to comfortably store many of the appliances of 
the kitchen and laundry — the forms upon which the 
wash-tubs stand, the clothes-horse, baskets, etc., and 
perhaps the wheelbarrow, baby carriage, bicycles, and 
numerous other articles, needed for the comfort of the 
family. Wherever these things are stored, each should 
have a place, and every member of the family should be 
expected to return each to its place after using. By a 
series of pegs, or hooks and a shelf or two, a large num- 
ber of small articles may be hung or put away where 
they are in sight and easily reached. 

The Tool-House. 

Whether we are farming or gardening on a small or 
large scale, a more or less large equipment of tools is 
needed for successful and profitable work, both for out- 
side work and under cover on stormy days and during 



40 



The Small Country Place 



the winter. The most successful farmers or gardeners 
are handy men, able to turn their hands to many kinds 
of work, and not always dependent upon the mechanics 
in the town or city, which may be several miles away, 
often taking more time to go and return with a job than 
to do the work oneself. A small kit of tools for iron 
working, and wood working, a supply of bolts, nuts, 
screws, nails, etc., that cost but a few dohars, will often 
save all they cost in repairing but a few articles. 




i'lLJ. u ~A Handy Tool-Room or Work-Shop. 

To make the most of such an equipment one must 
know how to care for them, be more or less skilful in 
their use, and have them systematically arranged where 
they may always be found when wanted. Sets of 
wrenches, cold chisels, bits, drills, and other tools should 
be compactly placed in racks or drawers where they 
may almost be found with the eyes closed (Fig. 6). 
Different kinds of woods, boards, mouldings, etc., should 



Remodelling Old Buildings 



41 



be placed in racks upon the ceiling or under the bench. 
A wooden vise attached to a substantial bench is needed 
for wood working and an iron one with an anvil attach- 
ment will be found most useful. If one has a large 
equipment of teams and tools, a portable forge, a few 
plumbing tools, taps and dies, etc., will save many a 
large bill. 

Care of Farming and Gardening Tools. 
The good workman is known by his tools, and no 
workman can do his best with poor tools or those badly 




Fig. 7— The Tool-Room. Farm Tools Hung on tlie Walls 
of the Barn Basement. 

cared for. All tools should be cleaned and wiped after 
using and hung in their proper places. A large number 
of tools may be kept in a very small space when prop- 
erly arranged. The large tools like mowing-machines, 
horse-rakes, etc., will require considerable floor room, 
but the plows, cultivators, seed-sowers, weeders, etc., 
may be hung upon pegs or large hooks along the sides 
of the tool- or wagon-shed or cellar, as shown in the 



42 The Small Country Place 

illustration (Fig. 7). Chains, whiffletrees, eveners, etc., 
may be disposed of in the same manner, when they may 
be quickly taken down for use or an inventory taken at 
a glance to tell whether any have been left out or been 
borrowed by neighbors. Spades, shovels, forks, rakes, 
hoes, etc., may be hung in a still more compact manner 
upon racks, either home-made or the neat cast-iron ones 
offered by dealers. 

Mark all Tools. 

Nothing gives one more trouble than lending tools in 
the busy season, and while we all like to be neighborly, 
many borrowers are so forgetful that we often reach 
the state of declining to lend to any one. However, 
as we at times find it necessary to ask favors of neigh- 
bors, and we should all " give and take, " we may get over 
the difficulty somewhat by having every 'tool distinctly 
marked or branded with our name. As it is very desir- 
able to have the wood-work of all tools covered with 
oil or paint, if we adopt some distinctive color and in 
addition to branding paint all wood-work every two or 
three years with our special color, we can recognize our 
tools at a long distance and easily keep them at home. 

Have a Warm Tool-Room. 

A room that can be warmed is almost a necessity where 
repairs of tools, harness, market boxes, berry crates, etc., 
can be comfortably made in stormy weather and during 
the winter. The room should be dry, and when the 
weather is very moist and warm outside and cold inside, 
the doors and windows must be kept closed or the 
moisture w411 be condensed upon the tools, causing 
them to rust badly. In the fall, while the tools are 
bright, if covered with a thin coating of linseed oil they 
will be protected from rusting. 



Remodelling Old Buildings 



43 



Poultry Houses. 

Raising poultry is one of the largest interests on most 
small farms, and one in which cheap buildings if warm 
and dry are often as serviceable as more costly ones. 
An abundance of sunlight, warmth, and air must be pro- 
vided. The first must be provided by a large glass sur- 
face on the south side. Second-hand window-sash or hot- 
bed sash may often be purchased for about the value of 
the glass in them, and if the frames are not badly de- 



■^'^spwetsss^Bt*-, -^ - - 





Fig. S — A Modern Poultry-House with Scratching ftlied. 

cayed, by removing the glass, cleaning off the putty and 
thoroughly saturating the joints with thin paint, using 
a little kerosene in it, they may be made almost as good 
as new. Double sash will be economical during the win- 
ter if ventilators are provided for a sufficient supply of 
fresh air during the middle of the day and in warm 
weather (Fig. 8) . Thin cotton cloth is now coming into 
use in place of glass as shown in the lower sash. It 
affords more protection from cold than glass, and pre- 
vents drafts when it is necessary to open on warm days. 



44 The Small Country Place 

Warm Houses. 

There is little danger of getting old houses too warm 
if scratching-sheds are provided. There will always 
be more or less cracks and holes through which cold 
air will come. Old houses can be made warm by the 
use of building paper and banking about the foun- 
dation with old hay or straw. Tarred paper is largely 
used, as it is antiseptic and a partial insecticide, 
though not as warm as untarred or felt paper. The 
lining-boards between the rafters should be covered 
as well as the sides of the building, for no matter 
how warm the sides are made, the houses will be cold and 
damp from the cold air dropping down from this ex- 
posed surface. If there is no floor in the house, the 
ground outside for three or four feet should be covered 
with enough hay, straw or leaves to prevent its freez- 
ing, for without this covering the frost might work into 
the soil inside, no matter how warm the sides and roof 
are made. 

Barn, Stable, and Carriage- House. 

What has been said of the foundation, sills, roof, etc., 
of other buildings applies equally well to these struc- 
tures. Whenever possible changes should be made to 
improve the conveniences for caring for stock and com- 
fort of the same, storing fodder, and the disposal of the 
manure, etc. The latter should be disposed of in such a 
manner that the gases shall not rise into the stable or 
carriage-room. If it is dropped into the cellar below an 
abundance of absorbent material must be used, and 
windows made through the under-pinning on three or 
four sides. The best disposition that can be made of 
this material is to either put it on the land as made or 
dump it into a covered watertight pit, with all waste 



Remodelling Old Buildings 



45 



matter from lawn, house, or garden, and keep it well 
covered with fine soil or other absorbents. It is sur- 
prising how much rich compost can be made from one or 
two animals or even from more in this manner, and the 
abundance of vegetables and fruit this compost will 
enable us to grow. 

Cheap buildings may be made tight and warm in the 
manner described for poultry-houses. A very neat ap- 
pearance will be produced upon the sides, if heavy roof- 
ing paper is used, with vertical strips or battens placed 
neatly about one foot apart, and then all painted. 
Horses and cows need a warm dry place with an abvm- 



imfi 




Fig. 9 — A Modem System of Ventilating Stables, 
Poultry-Houses, Etc. 

dance of sunlight and air. One of the most approved 
methods of ventilating stables or poultry buildings is to 
have the fresh air come in from the outside at the sills, 
entering the stable under the upper floor, and the foul 
air passing into a shaft near the floor somewhere in 
front of the animals on a level with the floor (Fig. 9). 



46 



The Small Country Place 



One inlet 4 x 20 inches to each ten feet of length will be 
sufficient for a small number of animals, with an exit 
shaft from one to two feet square, according to the 
number of animals. 



Shingling Walls of Old Buildings. 

Many old buildings have become unsightly from the 
starting and working off of the clapboards, which it is 
found difficult to hold in place with anything but large 





1 iG. 10 — A Small Shingled Building Covered with \ ines ; 
Grapevine above, Nasturtiums below. 

nails that often crack them, increasing the unsightliness. 
Such walls may be covered with shingles, first removing 
the clapboards and putting on over the lining-boards 
one or two thicknesses of building paper, making very 
warm and neat buildings. The cost of first quality 
shingles and clapboards is about the same per square 
(100 sq. ft. 10x10 ft.) when the former are laid four 
inches to the weather, but when laid five inches or five 



Remodelling Old Buildings 47 

and one-half inches to the weather as is often done upon 
upright walls, shingles become the cheapest and can be 
laid by less skilled laborers. 

Shingles should never be painted on the outside only, 
as they will decay more quickly than if not painted at 
all, for the reason that the rain w411 work in at the 
cracks, but will work out less rapidly from a painted 
roof. If it is desirable to paint shingled surfaces either 
on the roof or sides the butts should first be dipped into 
thin paint an inch or two above where they lap when 
laid after which they may be painted with but little or 
no injury. The majority of shingled roofs and houses 
are not painted, the natural color of the unpainted 
shingles being preferred as more in keeping with natural 
objects like rocks, tree trunks, etc. A shingled house, 
unpainted, with window frames white or dark green and 
the sash black, in a setting of ornamental trees, vines, 
and plants; with more or less color from bright flowers, 
leaves and fruits, is about as near natural beauty as 
the hand of man can produce. Fig. 10 shows a shed 
covered with shingles and vines, and Fig. 11 a modem 
shingled house. 

Painting Old Buildings. 

Nothing adds more to the beauty of old buildings than 
a good coat of paint of pleasing colors, suited to the 
surroundings. Painting is one of the best investments 
one who owns buildings can make. We paint for two 
reasons — to preserve the w^ood work, and to enhance the 
beauty of the buildings. To preserve the wood work it 
is economy to put on a coat of paint every three to five 
years, according to the weather conditions and the kind 
of paint used. In seasons of many changes from wet to 
dry paint will come off of wood work more rapidly than 
when we have but few changes and little rain. Some 



48 The Small Country Place 

kinds of paint will stand well for from five to eight years, 
while others will last but a short time. 

To produce the best results, buildings should be 
thoroughly dry, that the paint may penetrate into all 
the cracks and crevices and thus shut out the moisture, 




Fig. 11 — A Modern Shingled House. 

which causes wood work to decay most rapidly. It may 
take more paint under this condition, but it will be 
economy in the end. 

Time for Painting. 

In view of what has just been said it would seem that 
during a very dry summer would be the best time to 
paint our houses, but the general practice is to paint in 
the spring or early fall, and very little attention is given 
to the condition of the buildings, state of the weather, 
etc. Perhaps the reason for this practice is the fact 
that the weather conditions at these times are as good as 
at any other season and labor less busy. The winter 
months have many advantages for painting. During 
cold weather the same amount of oil and coloring matter 
will be a little thicker than in the summer, will dry or 



Remodelling Old Buildings 49 

harden more upon the surface, and may thus possess 
just as much preservative power as if it penetrated more 
into the wood work. Many skilled painters use a large 
amount of turpentine with the first coat of paint upon old 
buildings to make it penetrate better, but turpentine 
is often almost double the cost of oil and is not as much 
of a preservative. Therefore while we conclude that the 
winter may not be the best time to paint, the work is 
so expensive an operation that those who are about to 
paint their buildings should do it when it can be done 
most thoroughly and most economically. 

Kind of Paints to Use. 

It is generally conceded that pure white lead and pure 
linseed oil make the most durable paint, and in the end 
the cheapest. With white lead as a foundation almost 
any medium or hght colors may be produced by the ad- 
dition of the necessary dark colors. A large percentage 
of the paints used are what are called "ready mixed." 

Ready mixed paints put up by reputable dealers are 
good, being mixed by machinery, and therefore the 
lead or other pigments are more intimately mixed 
with the oil than can be done by hand; but in the 
greed for profits many ready mixed paints made by 
unprincipled manufacturers are adulterated, and dealers 
often advocate their use because of the larger profit to 
themselves. 

Mixing Paints. 

If standard white lead is used for the foundation much 
care and skill must be exercised if a variety of colors 
is desired. In this work the lead should be first thor- 
oughly mixed so that it is smooth and even all through; 
then the coloring materials are to be as thoroughly 
mixed, and then unless a fixed formula is used a little is 



5© The Small Country Place 

added to the white and stirred until the whole is thor- 
oughly mixed. This is repeated until the shade is just 
like the sample to be matched. If dry coloring materials 
are used, each one should be thoroughly mixed sepa- 
rately, with a little oil only, until smooth, then more oil 
added and again mixed until it will pour, then it is 
mixed with the white lead. 

No definite rule can be given as to the quantity of 
various materials needed to produce certain tints, but 
with a sample on a card or piece of wood one must keep 
adding, little at a time, the colors that will produce the 
desired shade. In testing a color, one must rub it thor- 
oughly with the brush in order to bring out the same 
shade as would be obtained by spreading it upon a 
building. 

Popular Colors. 

Every few years certain colors are "in fashion," as 
are coats, hats or gloves. Thus various shades of gray 
were popular twenty-five years ago; then came the 
browns a few years later; then buffs and yellows with 
white or dark green trimmings ; and at the present time 
shades of green are much used. In the thickly-settled 
village almost any of the above shades if not too bright 
and glaring, smoothly put on, are in harmony with the 
surroundings, but in the country soft colors of gray, 
brown, or buff are more appropriate. White, the typi- 
cal color of New England country dwellings, and some 
other sections, is too glaring unless heavily set with 
trees and shrubbery. While white lead is perhaps the 
most durable of paints, it is easily soiled by contact with 
trees, or by water running down from the eaves, and 
often it costs more to keep a house looking nicely in 
white than in some other color, 



Remodelling Old Buildings 



Paint Brushes. 



51 



The better the brush and the more carefully it is used 
the better the work will be done, but it is not advisable 
for the amateur to buy expensive brushes which are used 
for a little time and then left without use to harden and 
become worthless. The professional, who is using brushes 
continually and cares for them in the best manner, finds 
the best the cheapest. Ordinary cheap brushes will do 
good work for a while and with care may be used for a 
considerable time. Before using, brushes should be 
soaked in water or oil, to swell the bristles and the 
handles so that they will not pull out in using. After 
using they should be cleaned of paint as much as possible 
by rubbing on a coarse board or stones, and then be sus- 
pended in water, bristles down. If a Httle kerosene is 
put in the water it will help keep the brushes from hard- 
ening. If very hard and old, a Httle potash put into the 
water will soften up the hardened oil, though perhaps 
the bristles may be somewhat softened also and made 
less durable. 

House Painting. 

The professional house-painter will claim that his work 
is far superior to that of the amateur, yet with a few 
brushes and a little practice in mixing paint and putting 
it on, any one at all skilful in the use of tools will be 
able to do a good job of painting and often with a large 
saving in labor bills. The aim in this work should be to 
spread the paint evenly and to fill up all cracks and nail- 
holes so that water or air will not penetrate. If there 
are many large cracks and nail-holes, after the first coat 
has hardened they should be filled up with soft putty 
that can be pressed into small openings. 



CHAPTER III 



Building New Houses 



MANY problems confront those who are about 
to build a new house and settle in the country. 
If the readers have followed the suggestions 
in the preceding chapters about looking for a home, and 
have found "just what is wanted" or a house that can 
be so remodelled as to satisfy the desired conditions, 
they are indeed fortunate. But if only the land has 
been found, they face the problem of building a new 
dwelling-house and outbuildings. 

Building Associations. 

At the prevailing prices of building materials, espe- 
cially lumber, new buildings cannot be constructed with- 
out more or less ready money. There are, however, 
many ways by which those of limited means can build. 
In many places there are building associations which 
will put up a house after one's own plans, payment to 
be made weekly, monthly, or quarterly, which shall 
cover rent, taxes, interest and something on the prin- 
cipal with each payment. This is a very good scheme 
provided the association is not too grasping and one is 
sure of a regular income with which to meet the pay- 
ments. Builders and contractors, too, may be found who 
build new houses and offer them for sale on easy terms. 
These associations and contractors, building extensively 
as they do, can buy materials much cheaper than one 
building a single house, and therefore can afford to sell 

52 



Building New Houses 



53 



at a reasonable price and yet make a large profit. There 
is the advantage in buying a new house just completed 
that those who have not made a study of building plans 
and specifications can see it in its completeness and 
better judge whether or not it is suited to their wants. 

A Definite Plan. 

The kind of house, the amount of room required, and 
every point connected with the undertaking should be 
studied and a complete and definite plan adopted. This 
plan may be made by a skilled architect, or the mem- 
bers of the family may get together and decide what 
rooms are needed, the details of construction to be 
worked out by a carpenter or builder. It is, as a rule, 
more economical to have a plan made by a professional 
architect, which will often save more than its cost in 
buying material, planning, and doing the work. 

Contract vs. Day Labor. 

If one putting up a new building has had some experi- 
ence and can more or less direct and assist in the work, 
building by day labor is often the most satisfactory, but 
if he knows little or nothing of such work, it will be best 
and cheapest done by a responsible contractor with com- 
plete plans and the fullest possible specifications. 

The Most Important Points. 
In building a house of whatever material the follow- 
ing points should be most carefully considered: 

Location. 

For comfort and healthfulness a southern or sunny 
exposure is desirable. While for a time during the sum- 
mer, a northern and perhaps a shaded exposure may be 
most comfortable, unless the sun strikes a building or its 
immediate surroundings for a considerable part of each 



54 The Small Country Place 

day the rooms, especially during wet and cloudy weather, 
will become moist and unhealthful. During the winter, 
when fires are kept up, the rooms may become dry 
enough for health, but there is nothing like sunshine to 
destroy the germs of disease in our dwellings. If pos- 
sible select a site where there are pleasant views, a sheet 
of water, a winding brook, extensive meadows, hills or 
mountains. Some locations will of course afford more of 
these beautiful features than others, but none should be 
wholly devoid of something of beauty, that we will 
want to have before us as much as possible. Unsightly 
views or objects may often be avoided in the location 
of the building, or be covered or hidden in the arrange- 
ment or by after planting of trees. Outbuildings should 
be put in the rear yet so as to be conveniently reached 
from the house. These should not be in such a condition 
as to need hiding, but should be kept neat and tidy and 
so decorated with trees, shrubs and vines as to be ob- 
jects of beauty. Having the stable and other outbuild- 
ings connected with the house by sheds or covered pass- 
ageways is a great convenience in cold and stormy 
weather, but the connection should not be of such 
heavy construction that it may not be easily pulled 
down in case of fire in either end. 

The living-rooms should be upon the south where 
there is plenty of sunlight and pleasing views. Here the 
members of the family spend a large part of their time 
and everything possible should be done to make all con- 
ditions pleasant and healthful. If there are any rooms 
into which the sun does not shine let them be the dining- 
room, which is occupied but a short time three times each 
day, or the parlor, which may not be — but should be — 
opened upon more than "state occasions." We cannot 
expect to combine in any one place all of the desirable 
features above mentioned. 



Building New Houses 55 

An Abundance of Windows. 

Nothing adds so much to the healthfulness of a house 
as an abundance of sunshine. At the present price of 
glass, and low cost for making sash, glass surfaces will 
cost but little if any more than the same surface covered 
with wood and plastering and kept painted and papered, 
while the glass surface unless broken will cost less to 
keep in repair. A space covered with a single thickness 
of glass will not be as warm as one lined, papered, and 
clapboarded on the outside and plastered and papered 
on the inside, but storm windows are comparatively 
inexpensive and will last a lifetime if taken off every 
spring and stored in a dry place during the summer. 

The Water Supply. 

As previously urged the water supply is of the utmost 
importance. Old wells should be looked upon with sus- 
picion, and new ones if made should be located where 
no foul matter will run into them. The supply should be 
abundant and continuous, if possible, without the labor 
of pumping or carrying a long distance. 

Houses of Wood. 

One of the first questions to be settled after deciding 
to build a new house is, of what material shall it be — 
wood, brick, stone, or cement (concrete) ? The present 
cost of lumber and other materials makes houses of wood 
very expensive, yet there is nothing more satisfactory 
than a well located and well built house of wood. It is 
warm "and dry, and when the sills are carried high upon 
a good foundation, with a well ventilated space or cellar 
under it, and the outside kept thoroughly painted, and 
in repair, such houses may be made to last a century or 
more. 



56 The Small Country Place 

If the location is in the country where native lumber 
is obtainable, good building material may often be ob- 
tained at a much less cost than that from the North or 
West, especially if one has teams and can draw it to and 
from the mill. Native lumber is generally not as true 
and free from knots as that sawn from large old trees 
and sorted and graded before it is shipped to the dealers, 
yet for sills, posts, lining and roof-boards, lining of 
floors, sheathing and floors in stables, etc., is as good 
and can be purchased at first hand sometimes at half the 
cost. 

The Frame. 

Lumber for frames may be of chestnut, spruce, pine, 
etc., the first especially for sills where there is much 
moisture and the others for the frame above the sills. 

Cover Boards. 

The cheapest cover boards for sides and roof are native 
pine or hemlock, the latter only largely obtained from 
northern sections, where it growls to perfection. The 
shingles most used are of cedar, of which there are 
many grades offered by dealers. The extras and No. i 
clear butts are most used for roofs, though special lots 
of No. 2 clears may be found with but few knots in 
them and sound and very serviceable. This grade of 
shingles is largely used for covering the sides of poultry 
houses and other outbuildings. Other materials for roofs 
were discussed in the previous chapter, which see^. For 
corner boards, saddle boards, window casings outside, 
spruce and pine are most used, with clapboards of 
spruce, and cedar shingles for covering the sides, the 
latter being used largely on low modern houses. 



Building New Houses 57 

The Finish Inside. 

For window casings and other finish inside many 
kinds of wood are used. Of the native northern lumber 
extra quahty of spruce is sometimes used. White ash is 
much used and makes a beautiful and lasting finish in 
natural wood colors. Cypress is coming into extensive 
use in modem houses of medium cost, and when care- 
fully selected most beautiful natural wood finish may be 
obtained. Birch, butternut, black walnut, black cherry, 
oak, etc., are used either alone or in combination with 
others with pleasing effect. Of the native southern 
lumber, the cypress, hard pine, tulip wood, magnolia, 
sweet gum, etc., makes a very satisfactory finish. When 
the finish is to be painted clear pine, cypress, and spruce 
are largely used. Window frames and casings and other 
inside finish are now made at factories at very reasonable 
prices all ready to put up, and also doors, sash and 
blinds, thus reducing both the cost and the time it takes 
to build. By carefully selecting beautifully marked 
boards or those of special colors for the doors, casings, 
etc., beautiful effects may be obtained. 

Floor Boards. 

Most modem floors are made of hard wood to be fin- 
ished in natural wood colors, but where they are to be 
painted cypress, spruce and pine are used. Boards in 
narrow widths used in hard wood floors are much more 
even and durable than wide ones, though the narrower 
the boards the greater will be the waste and the cost of 
labor in laying. Floor boards should be kiln dried and 
be laid at once after coming from the kiln. With nicely 
fitted flooring any one fairly skilled in the use of tools 
may lay a good floor, but if fancy designs and various 
colors are worked into them it can only be done with 
success by those who can make very exact and close- 



58 The Small Country Place 

fitting joints. Of the wood used, hard pine, oak, maple, 
birch and black walnut are the most popular. By the 
use of several kinds or shades 01 these woods very pleas- 
ing effects are produced. 

Finishing Floors. 

Much of the beauty and durability of floors depends 
upon how they are finished. The most beautiful and 
durable floors are those upon which but little dressing 
has been used and that thoroughly rubbed in, filling 
the pores yet preserving the natural grain of the wood. 

The best substance for filling the pores or grain is 
rather thin white shellac rubbed down to a dead finish. 
Two or three coats may be needed if the wood is very 
porous, like birch. After a thorough rubbing down a 
thin coat of wax or oil should be applied. If oil is used 
a large amount of drier should be added and the floor 
rubbed until the surface is dry and will not soil the hand 
when passed over it. Wax should be put on with a 
heavy weight that will leave but a very thin and smooth 
surface. 

Stone, Brick and Cement Houses. 

With the price of lumber going higher every year, we 
must look about for cheaper material with which to 
build. Stone and brick are no cheaper than wood, 
owing to the high price of labor. An ordinary laborer 
who- becomes a skilled workman after a few weeks and 
can work with the trowel or hammer and chisel, de- 
mands $4.00 per day for eight hours' work. This, with 
the efforts of the trusts to secure a monoply of all neces- 
sities that they may increase prices to enable them to 
pay large dividends, will be sure to keep these materials 
on a par with wood. This may be said also of steel and 
iron, which enter so largely into the construction of 
large structures. 



Building New Houses 6i 

Brick Houses. 

Even if brick were available at a more moderate cost, 
and labor was reasonable in price, this material seems 
out of place in the country and has little to recom- 
mend it above wood (Fig. 12). 

Stone Houses. 

A stone house -(Fig. 14) is more in keeping with country 
surroundings but is also open to the objection that the 
cost of labor first in getting out the stone, and then in 
building, makes it almost prohibitive to those of ordi- 
nary means. A brick house may be made with a hollow 
wall, but a house of ordinary stone must be made solid, 
and additional furring and lining inside must be used to 
keep it dry and warm. Rustic stone is largely used in 
the construction of the foundations and first story of 
dwellings and is in keeping with the natural country 
surroundings; but this is open to the objection that the 
walls must be made thick and a frame or furring be put 
inside to keep the house dry and warm. With the in- 
creased cost in building material persons of ordinary 
means are looking for something cheaper than stone, 
brick, or wood, and as a large percentage of the cost of 
building is the labor, some system is needed by which 
material of low cost may be put together by the owner or 
by ordinary labor. This problem seems to be in a fair 
way of being solved by 

Cement or Concrete Buildings. 

A material that is now attracting much attention for 
buildings of moderate cost, is Portland cement and 
sand. This material is found in many sections of the 
country. It is sold at a very reasonable price and if 
trusts are not allowed to obtain a monopoly of the 



62 



The Small Country Place 



supply it should be even cheaper, and will be largely 
used for structures of small or medium size. As stated 
above, the cost is low in comparison with other build- 
ing materials, and much of the labor of building can be 
done by the owner or his regular help if fairly skilled in 
the use of tools and such materials. Good brands of 





Fig. 13 — The Construction of a Solid-Wall Concrete House, 
Reinforced by Steel Rods. 

Portland cement fresh from the kiln mixed with from 
one to three parts of clean sharp sand will make solid 
walls or blocks, practically as durable as brick or cut 
stone. 

The Solid Wall. 

Two methods of construction of cement buildings are 
in use — solid walls, and the block system. By the first, 
solid walls are made by putting up a frame of plank very 
nicely fitted and filling the space with the mixed cement, 
sand and stones, raising the frame as each layer of 
cement becomes hard until the walls are of the desired 
height. Fig. 13 shows the construction of a solid wall 



Building New Houses 65 

reinforced with steel rods and Fig. 15 a section of a 
house with soUd walls. 

The difficulty of building the walls in this way is that 
being porous, moisture and cold readily pass through 
and the inner surface can only be made warm and dry 
by building up an inner frame or putting up furring upon 
which to plaster, leaving an air space between the wall 
and the inside surface. In building up walls in^this way 
more or less large stones are sometimes laid and the 
cement filled in, carefully working it in and about them 
so that no air spaces will hold to the plank or stones. 

The Block Systein. 

By the block system the cement is put into moulds 
of the desired form and size for the various parts of the 
building. These blocks may be made to represent cut or 
rough stone, the corners, window frames, sills, and caps, 
etc., being either plain or ornamented. Air spaces are 
obtained by having v^ertica) openings which shall be 
continuous from underpinning, or by having the walls 
made of double blocks with narrow boards or planks 
placed perpendicularly at the joints, thus making an 
entirely hollow wall. The latter makes by far the best 
non-conducting wall and the blocks are less complicated 
in structure, though double the number are required in 
the building. One of the advantages of the block system 
is that a few blocks may be made at a time as one has 
the leisure, and are just as good, possibly better, if one 
is a year in making enough for a house. Fig. 16 illus- 
trates a house made of concrete blocks, and Fig. 17 a 
machine by which the blocks are made. 

The Cement and Sand. 

Good work cannot be made of cement more than six 
months old as it is ordinarily kept, but if it has been 



66 



The Small Country Place 




Fig. 15— Section of a Concrete Fire-Proof House with Solid Walls 
Reinforced with Steel Rods, 



Building New Houses 



67 



stored in a perfectly dry place and at an even tem- 
perature it may retain its strength a much longer time. 
The best brands only should be used, especially for the 
blocks and trimmings, and if possible its quality and 
strength should be tested before using. 

The sand used should be clean and sharp. Freedom 
from.' organic matter may be tested by putting a small 
quantity in a pail with clean water, giving it a rapid 




Fig. 16 — A Cement Concrete House, made of Hollow Blocks. 

stirring, and pouring off quickly, the organic matter will 
soon settle on the bottom of the vessel into which it is 
poured. The sharpness of the sand may be determined 
by examining its particles with a magnifying glass. 
The coarser the sand, if of an even grade, the better. 
Fine broken stone when it can be obtained is better 
than sand. Very coarse sand, gravel or broken stone 
should also be used with the fine sand and cement. 



68 



The Small Country Place 



Mixing Cement and Sand. 

In making a solid wall or blocks of cement it should 
be with the idea that they are to last for centuries, but 
this cannot be unless cement of the best quaHty is used 
and thoroughly mixed with the best of sand. In mix- 
ing, a layer of sand (two, three or four parts) is spread out 




Fig. 17 — A Machine for Making Hollow Concrete Blocks. 

evenly on the bottom of the mortar-bed; one part of 
cement is spread evenly over it, and then the mass is 
shpvelled over back and forth until thoroughly mixed, 
when water is added and the mass is given another 
thorough mixing. For making soHd walls or laying up 
rustic stone, cement should be as soft as it can be made 
to hold to the stones and should be used as soon as made. 
For the moulds, what is called the dry mixture is most 



Building New Houses 69 



used — just water enough to thoroughly mix the sand 
and cement; and when tamped into the mould a little 
water will stand on the surface. When the cement in 
the mould is sufficiently set the mould is unlocked, the 
block carefully taken out and placed in the shade or a 
moist room and sprinkled a few times until thoroughly 
hard. Soft cement may be poured into the mould and 
when fully set — in a day or two — it is taken out and the 
mould refilled. This, however, is a slow process. 

Concrete walls, either solid or of hollow blocks, are 
very desirable for stables and other outbuildings, espe- 
ciallv for the foundation, basement, and first story, 
where there is a large amount of moisture, which would 
rot a building made of w^ood. It makes very clean and 
serviceable floors for stables, carriage and tool rooms. 
Sidewalks are now largely made of this material, some 
cities having miles of it that will apparently be as durable 
as cut stone. This material is very valuable for floors of 
outhouses, cellars, wood-sheds, etc. 

Heating the Country House. 

Country houses are generally more difficult and more 
expensive to heat than those in thickly settled villages 
or towns, in part perhaps because of their cheap con- 
struction, but more because of their exposure. A house 
built of good material, closely fitted, and lined with 
paper over the entire covered surface, ought not to be 
difficult or unusually expensive to heat unless fully 
exposed to prevailing winds. One of the most important 
points to be considered in the plan of the house is the 
method of heating. 

Wood Fires. 

In the country where wood is abundant and cheap the 
year's supply may often be obtained by thinning out 
the poor and surplus growth from the wood-lot, and if 



yo The Small Country Place 

one has sufficient area the supply can be cut and the 
lot improved with each yearly cutting. The heat from 
wood is less lasting than that from coal, and the work of 
attending the fires much greater. Where wood is used 
it should be stored where it may be easily reached. 
Wood must be burned in close stoves to be economical 
of heat, but in such stoves — airtights — the oxygen of the 
air is quickly exhausted unless there is adequate ven- 
tilation through a fire-place or open spaces into the 
chimney near the floor. Large cast-iron airtight stoves 
are now made in which may be burned large sticks of 
one or two cuts which will last a long time and keep up 
an even heat. Coal stoves for heating living-rooms 
are open to some of the objections urged against the 
wood stove, but they take up less space and the heat is 
more even. Where one must buy wood its cost, includ- 
ing cutting up for the stove, will in most localities be 
equal that of coal. 

Furnace Heat. 

A large amount of labor is required to keep stoves 
running in several rooms of a house and the consequent 
dirt and dust is very annoying. In the more com- 
fortable modern country houses we now find the heating 
done by one large furnace or boiler in the cellar or base- 
ment. By this method only one fire is kept up, and 
where the coal or wood is stored close to the furnace 
little or no more work will be required to run it than 
would a single stove in the rooms above, where all 
of the fuel is carried up and the ashes taken out every 
day. With tight floors and well-fitted registers and 
pipes all the dust and dirt are kept from the rooms 
above. 



Building New Houses 



71 



Three Systems of Heating — Hot Air, Hot 
Water, and Steam. 

Heated air passing directly from outdoors to the 
rooms to be warmed is the ideal heat if it is not passed 
over a too hot surface which burns the air as in the ordi- 
nary hot-air furnace. The indirect hot-air heat is pro- 
duced by passing cold air from outside over surfaces 
of hot water or steam-heated pipes, and is not open to 
the objection of the ordinary hot-air furnace, but the 
cost of heating by this method is much greater. An- 
other objection to a hot-air furnace is that we cannot 
always direct the heat where it is most needed under all 
conditions of weather. 

Hot-Water Heat. 

Heated water distributed through small pipes to 
radiators or stacks in the rooms to be heated gives a 
very economical and pleasant heat. It can be carried 
to the exact point where needed and little or much heat 
may be produced, according to the extent of radiating 
surface or the temperature of the water. Two kinds of 
boilers are used for water heating — the wrought-iron, 
with tubes, and the cast-iron boilers of many different 
forms. The wrought-iron boiler is generally considered 
the most economical of heat while new and if kept clean, 
but in moist cellars scales of rust soon form on the 
inner surface under which are air-spaces that keep the 
heat from coming in contact with the inner or water 
surface of the boiler, and after a few years the boiler will 
need renewing. 

Cast-iron boilers may be used with less risk in wet 
cellars, as the surface does not rust in scales and the 
heat will pass through the rusted iron almost as readily 
as if it were new. 



y2 The Small Country Place 

Most of the modern cast-iron boilers used for house 
and greenhouse heating are made in sections, so that a 
small number of sections are used for small buildings 
and more are added for larger ones. Another advantage 
claimed for sectional boilers is that if one section cracks 
or is in any way defective it can be replaced without 
buying an entire new boiler. 

Steam Heat. 

Where a large amount of heat is required steam is, 
however, very satisfactory. If a small amount of heat 
is needed it can be obtained only by running steam 
through a small number of pipes. No heat can be 
circulated in the pipes until the water gets above 212°, 
and all heat is lost when it falls below this. The cost 
of piping for steam heat is less than that for hot water. 

With steam and hot-water heating no provision is 
generally made for introducing fresh air into the rooms. 
But if the building is loosely built or ventilation is pro- 
vided for by an opening into the chimney near the 
floor, the foul air will be rapidly replaced by that from 
outside. 



CHAPTER IV 



The Decoration of Home Grounds 

"Be it ever so humble 
There's no place like home." 

THE more of beauty and comfort there is about 
the home the better one can stand the trials of 
life, the more enthusiasm and energy one can 
put into the work of getting a living and caring for 
the loved ones in the home, and helping those about 
him. 

Preserve all Naturally Beautiful Features. 

There are very few homes about which there are not 
more or less attractive features. All of these should be 
studied carefully and nothing be destroyed or changed 
without good reasons. The rocks, trees, shrubs, vines, 
woods in the immediate surroundings of one's own place, 
and the distant views of hills, meadows, or water, should 
be kept distinctly in mind in all the work of changing 
and improving or planting, so that none be covered up 
or destroyed. If there are unsightly objects near we 
must study how not to expose them to view or to hide 
them if conspicuous. We should preserve and improve 
the natural growth of trees and not cut one down with- 
out due consideration. It takes a long time to grow 
newly-planted trees to the size to afford shade or pro- 
duce much of beauty, and we should make the most of 
any already standing. It is generally the case that 
trees growing naturally along the roadside, in the hedge- 

73 



74 



The Small Country Place 



rows or other neglected places, are well established in 
good soil; and with a little care, a little manure, fertil- 
izer or mulch during the dry weather of summer, they 
will start into a most vigorous growth and reach ma- 
turity much quicker than those transplanted from other 
places. Trees under these conditions are often of very 
imperfect shape and may require heroic treatment to 
put them into condition for ornamental uses. When 
trees are growing close together the 
branches are set very high on the 
trunk, thus making it difficult to pro- 
duce a low headed, well formed tree. 
This is overcome by pruning as in 
Fig. 1 8. If a close growth in the form 
of a grove is not desired, we must thin 
out the poorest, leaving such as may 
be desired, and by cutting back the 
top, as here illustrated, sometimes 
with small trees to a bean pole con- 
dition, start a new head at the desired 
height. Larger trees with several 
main branches may be treated in a 
similar manner, cutting these branches 
back to stubs a foot or more in length, 
-A Tall Young from which new branches will soon 
After cutting back in this 
manner the ends of. the cuts should 
be covered with paint to prevent decay. When the 
new sprouts begin to grow from the top of the pole, 
or the stubs, they should be carefully examined and 
the ends of all not needed to form a good head — three 
or four from each top or stub — pinched back so as to 
force the growth where it is desired. There should be 
one central shoot or leader and three or four side branches 
well distributed on all sides of the top, and thus a well- 




FlG. 1{ 

Tree showing at "a" 

where to cut back to Start. 

make it Branch Low. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 



IS 



formed head or top is established. If these shoots grow 
close together or all upon one side the top will soon 
break or split down and the tree be ruined. Deciduous 
trees only can be treated in this way. Evergreens do 
not readily send out side shoots when the branches are 
all removed, but if the lower branches are fairly good 
they may be improved by cutting back the leader (Figs. 
19 and 20), thus forcing growth into those that remain. 





Fig. 19 — A Norway .^pnicc with the 
Leading Shoot Cut Off to Force 
Growth into the Lower Branches. 



Fig. 20— The Result of Cuttin- Off 
the Leadine; Shoot. 



Evergreens with long bare trunks are not considered as 
beautiful as those with the lower branches sweeping the 
ground, but they possess a kind of beauty of their own 
and in the grove the removal of the lower branches 
becomes a matter of necessity to let in the light 
and air. 

Trees that have been planted b}^ the roadside but are 
now in bad condition from neglect may be improA^ed by 
the method suggested for those of natural growth. 



76 



The Small Country Place 



Trees which have been allowed to grow two main leaders, 

and are beginning 
to split at the 
fork, should Vjc at- 
tended to at once 
and bolts with large 
nuts or washers put 
through and the 
crack drawn close 
together, when in^ 
a few years the 
wound will be 
healed over, cover- 
ing bolt, head and 
all. Fig. 2 1 shows 
the result that 
will come to trees 
with forked main 
branches. 




Fig, 21 — Forked Branch of Tree Broken Down 
by Ice, Repaired and Supported by liod. 



Time for Pruning. 

Most trees may be pruned at any time when the leaves 
are off, but those that flow sap freely — the walnuts, 
maples, birches — had better be pruned late in the fall 
or in the spring after the buds begin to sw^ell. Ever- 
greens may be pruned at any time without serious 
injury except when frozen, at which time the wound is 
rough and broken and does not heal as readily as when 
pruned in early summer. If pruned late in the summer 
there will be little healing growth formed before winter 
and the wound will grow larger by freezing and thawing. 
All wounds upon deciduous trees should be covered at 
once with a thick coat of linseed oil paint, shellac, or 
coal tar. The first is most easily obtained and applied 
and is as good a preservative as either of the others. A 



Decoration of Home Grounds 



77 



second coat should be applied to large wounds after the 
first has hardened. Evergreens exude a pitch or resin- 
ous covering where injured and need not be so protected. 

Planting New Trees. 
A greater part of the decorating about country places 
is done by setting out new trees and shrubs. Most of 
these come from nurseries and are set in stiff, formal 
rows along the streets and avenues, or along boundary 
lines. Planted- along the roadside, they afford shade 
from the hot sun in 
the summer and in 
some places shelter 
from driving wind 
storms. An avenue 
of trees leading from 
the road to a dwel- 
ling some distance 
back is also a thing 
of beauty, but one of 
rather formal charac- 
ter, though desirable 
unless some beautiful 
view is cut off by it. 
More pleasing effects 
may be produced if 
the trees are arranged more or less in groups, in some 
places covering up undesirable objects or views and in 
others enhancing the beauty of objects by a setting of 
striking foliage. Large fine specimen trees standing 
near the house as in Fig. 22, should be most carefully 
preserved. Very old trees, often with decayed trunks, 
if still vigorous, may be preserved a long time by dig- 
ging out the dead loose centres, painting with linseed 
oil paint, and then filling with concrete. 




Fig. 'J-J. — A Perfect Purple Beech Tree, the 
result of Good Soil, a Northern Exposure, 
and Plenty of Room. 



yS The Small Country Place 

Some of the Best Street or Avenue Trees. 

Among the most largely and easily grown street or 
avenue trees the elm may be ranked as the best. Its 
high arching branches afford an abundant shade and yet 
allow a free circulation of air under them. The sugar 
maple, red and white or silver maple, tulip tree, red and 
pin oak, cucumber magnolia, all make good street or 
avenue trees but the branches should be started high 
that they may not interfere with travel as they increase 
in size. 

In many states the street planting is in the hands of 
one individual, known as the Tree Warden, and that 
functionary assumes all the work of planting and caring 
for street trees. While this may give more uniform 
results, it will generally be after one idea, one plan, with 
little or no variety, and it takes away all interest in such 
work by the abutter, therefore little street decorating 
will be done under such conditions except at the public 
expense. But the spirit of commercialism and public 
ownership should not suppress all sense of individual 
responsibility for the public good. A large majority of 
the beautiful avenues and attractive roadsides which 
make certain cities, towns and villages noted for their 
beauty, was largely the work of public-spirited indi- 
viduals who planted for the love of the work and for 
posterity. 

Home Decorations. 

The subject of decorating home grounds except in a 
moderate way is one too large for the limits of this vol- 
ume, and for more extended information the reader is 
referred to the author's work on "Landscape Gardening 
as Applied to Home Decoration," and other popular 
works upon this subject. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 79 

Grading About the Buildings. 

The first consideration after a new house has been 
built is the grading of the ground about it and locating 
such walks and drives as are needed. In this work aim 
should be to have an even, smooth grade away from the 
buildings, so that the surface water may run off quickly 
and not settle into the ground about the foundation, 
provision being made for carrying the roof water away 
in concrete or paved gutters or underground drains to 
an outlet some distance away. Care must be taken that 
no basins are formed where the water will stand during 
heavy rains or in the winter. 

There should be no unpaved gutters along the roads or 
walks to catch the water and thus cause washouts. In 
grading, the coarse and poor material had best be put 
on first and then a top dressing of good loam not less 
than ten inches in thickness. A poor soil may be so 
improved that it will grow good trees, shrubs and even 
grass, by deep spading or plowing and working into it a 
large amount of rich manure or fertilizer, but the better 
it can be made in the grading the less after work will 
be required. 

Roads and Walks. 

Walks and drives are a necessity for comfort on any 
place, and especially upon the farm, where more or less 
teams are kept and where a large amount of produce is 
to be carried out and supplies brought in. Yet they are 
artificial structures, expensive to build and keep in 
repair. 

Location of Roads and Walks. 

The location of roads and walks is a very important 
matter. We are planning these conveniences with the 
idea of a permanent home, and an unsatisfactory loca- 
tion means much inconvenience, loss of time, and hard 



8o 



The Small Country Place 




Fig. 23 — Location 
Drives and Walks. 




Fig. 24 — Another Plan 
of Drives and Walks. 



work. As few roads and walks as is possible should be 
made, laid out in graceful curves, yet running as directly 
from "^he entrance to the points of 
destinacion, — the house, bam, or stable, 
as may be. Where convenient, the road 
and walk from the street to the house 
may be combined and 
made of one material, 
or the walk may be 
made of concrete but 
occupying only one -fourth or less of 
the same foundation with the balance 
of gravel for the road. This will save 
space for more lawn and shrubbery, 

etc. Where possible the 
drive should come close 
up to the door most 
used, that all may get 
in and out of the house 
with comfort in stormy 
weather. The arrange- 
ment of walks and 
drives and manner of 
laying them out is 
shown in Figs. 23, 24, 

2 r 
Fig. 25 — How to Lay Out Drives and Walks. ■^ ' 

Under drain the Road- Bed. 

A good road cannot be made of poor material, and no 
matter what material is used a road will be of little per- 
manent value if the soil is saturated with water. In 
grading up about the buildings the good soil where the 
road is to be made may be taken out and replaced with 
stones and very coarse gravel. The amount to be taken 
out may depend upon the nature of the soil. If the 




Decoration of Home Grounds 



81 



loam is deep it may be cheaper to get as much as possible 
from, this source and replace it with stone or gravel. 
The excavation for the road-bed need not be below the 
stratum of gravel or hard-pan, though in the latter 




case one line of tile should be put in at least three and 
one-half feet deep, either in the middle or on one side — 
the upper side, if upon a side hill, as in Fig. 26. On 
very wet land nearly level two lines of tile may be 
needed, as shown in Fig. 27. 




Fig. 27 — Section of a Road with Drain Tile on Both Sides. 

Coarse gravel with the larger stones raked into the 
bottom of the road-bed will make a good road if under- 
drained. Broken stone if available will make a much 
more permanent road than gravel, though it is very ex- 
pensive and requires a heavy steami roller to compact 
the different layers of stone. If neither of the above 
materials comes within the means of the owner, a well- 
rounded gravel road on top of the soil will serve a good 
purpose in dry weather. When there is but little travel 
over the road a weU-compacted turf will be very satis- 
factory. To make a turf road the land is back-furrowed 
the desired width and the rounded surface made fine, 
mellow, and rich. A liberal amount of lawn-grass mix- 
ture is then sown and rolled in with a heavy roller. 

6 



82 The Small Country Place 

After the grass has become well established frequent 
rolling and cutting with a lawn-mower will fit it for the 
use of anything but heavy teams. Care must be taken 
not to have it cut up by heavy teams during the fall and 
spring. This is pleasant to walk upon and is as dry as 
any walk except when there is rain or dew upon it. The 
surface of a walk should be a little above the level of 
the lawn but not enough to cause water to gather upon 
the inside of a curve on a hillside and cause washing. 
Where well underdrained the surface should be fiat but 
upon undrained land a slightly rounded surface is 
necessary. 

To Keep Doivn the Weeds. 

Upon a road or walk surfaced with ordinary unsifted 
gravel there will be more or less weeds during the grow- 
ing season unless it is frequently gone over with a weed- 
killer or hoed over with a sharp hoe with a thin blade. 
If the surface is dressed with three or four inches of fine 
screened gravel or fine broken stone few weeds will start 
except in very wet weather. 

Concrete Walks and Drives. 

When one can afford the expense, concrete walks, 
either of cement or asphalt, will be found cheaper in the 
end if properly laid, but if improperly made and upon an 
undrained foundation, will be little or no better than 
one of gravel. The first and most important point in 
this work is the foundation. A durable walk or drive 
cannot be made on any soil saturated with moisture in 
freezing weather. Such soils must be underdrained with 
either land or Akron tile, the latter being much better 
where the soil is liable to freeze about it. A stone drain 
is sometimes used, but the writer has never seen such a 
drain that did not fill up within a few years. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 83 

The directions for mixing cement concrete are the 
same as for concrete buildings which was described on 
page 68. Upon a steep slope the surface of the concrete 
should be ribbed to prevent slipping or the surface 
covered with boards in icy weather. For the foundation 
of a cement concrete walk a dry mixture of from 
four to six parts of sand and course gravel to one 
of cement, from four to six inches thick, is thoroughly 
tamped so as to be smooth and level. Then a layer 
of one to two inches of concrete, two or three 
parts of sand to one of cement, thin mixed, so 
as to work easily, is spread over the surface and 
made smooth. To prevent the concrete from cracking 
irregularly by the action of frost from below, it is some- 
times made in squares or sections with a thin board 
between the sections to take up the contraction and ex- 
pansion. After laying cement concrete it should be kept 
moist until fully set by covering with hay, straw, mats 
or even sawdust, or by sprinkling two or three times. 

With tar concrete the first layer from four to six inches 
thick of coarse stones from one to four inches in diameter 
must be made solid by tamping or rolling as for the 
foundation of cement concrete, as well as the two suc- 
ceeding layers of small stones. The last layer is of fine 
clean sand and hot tar, thoroughly saturated and mixed, 
heavily rolled and then covered with fine dry sand until 
somewhat hardened. Concrete walks have the advan- 
tage that they may be easily kept clean in summer or 
winter and no weeds will grow upon them, but they are 
often slippery in icy weather and reflect the heat during 
the summer. 

Screen the Walks and Drives With Shrubbery. 

.Where walks and drives are wide and of considerable 
length they should in part at least be covered from view 



84 The Small Country Place 

by grouping masses of shrubs along the border. These 
are to be placed so as to screen the walks from view 
from the principal windows of the house, from the bal- 
cony, veranda or bay windows, or from the roadway in 
front of the house. If the place is small these groups 
of shrubbery must be small, in some cases only a single 
line of plants. Even hardy perennials will take off 
some of the sterile appearance of this stretch of bare 
soil in the midst of the living green of the lawn. 

Planting Trees and Shrubs. 

With the new house, the outside decorations are yet 
to be grown, except what may by chance have been pre- 
served from the roadside or hedge-rows, the treatment 
of which has been discussed on preceding pages. A 
home without more or less trees about the buildings and 
grounds is a forlorn place, exposed to the full heat of 
the sun in summer and storms and winds in the win- 
ter. While newly planted trees and shrubs appear to 
grow slowly to those waiting for their grateful shade it 
is but a comparatively short time before they will give 
an abundance of shade and shelter if planted at the 
earliest possible time. 

Where to Obtain Ornamental Trees 
AND Shrubs. 

No country in the world is richer in ornamental trees, 
shrubs, and plants than ours, and some of the most 
beautiful may be found growing by the roadsides or in 
pastures and woods, and may be readily transplanted to 
the house grounds. A large majority of the trees which 
we see by the roadsides and along the avenues were 
taken from these places. Trees of sufficient size for 
moving under the above conditions have generally been 
growing where found for a considerable time and the 



Decoration of Home Grounds 87 

kinds together. In this work we must always keep in 
mind the beauties of the home buildings as seen from 
the outside and the home and distant views as seen 
from the windows of the principal rooms, the verandas, 
or porches. See Fig. i. 

Close Planting to he Avoided. 

When planting we must keep in mind the size of the 
trees and shrubs when fully matured. While young 
they produce but little shade and shelter and as all 
desire immediate effect thick planting is generally done 
with the idea that we will cut out all but the few that 
will give the desired results when mature. But few will 
do this, and all are finally ruined for anything but 
grove trees; therefore it is generally better to plant just 
what are needed permanently and it is surprising in 
what a comparatively short time trees with full root and 
air space will reach mature size. 

Deciduous and Evergreen Trees. 

Deciduous trees are of especial value for summer and 
evergreens for winter decorations, the leaves of the 
former shutting off the intense heat of the summer sun, 
while the latter shield us from the fierce winds of winter 
and afford a beautiful contrast with the bare and brown 
trunks of the deciduous trees. If one has a considerable 
area to plant, groves of mixed varieties are effective, 
though an oak, chestnut, or pine grove each has char- 
acteristic beauty that would be lost in a mixed grove. 
For such groves close planting is desirable, that the 
trees may grow tall and straight with branches high 
from the ground. Evergreens make the densest shade 
in summer, but in winter are rather dark and gloomy. 
When the ground is covered with snow an evergreen 
grove possesses great beauty. 



88 The Small Country Place 

Fruit Trees as Ornamentals. 

Upon grounds of small area as much of beauty may be 
produced from fruit trees as from any of the so-called 
ornamentals. What can be more ornamental than an 
apple, a cherry, peach or plum tree when in bloom, and 
again when in fruit? They are things of beauty and a 
source of much pleasure, and even of profit. Close plant- 
ing of fruit trees should be avoided, as with ornamentals, 
for while the flowers and fruit may be just as beautiful 
and good up in the tops of close planted trees, stretching 
upwards for sunlight, they are beyond our vision and 
reach, while a low headed tree is far more beautiful and 
useful. 

In thickly-settled localities fruit trees are often a 
source of trouble from the attraction the fruit has for 
"Young America," and the cost of guarding against 
loss from this and other sources will perhaps make 
other ornamental trees more desirable. 

List of Trees. 

The following are among the best native trees that 
may be transplanted from the roadsides and fields: 

White Elm, Scarlet Oak, 

Slippery Elm, White Oak, 

Sugar Maple, Magnolia, 

Red Maple, Catalpa, 

Silver Maple, Sycamore, 

Mountain Ash, Beech, 

Basswood, Hickory (White), 

Canoe Birch, Tulip Tree, 

Sweet Birch, Sweet Gum, 

White Ash, Poplar (Cottonwood), 

Red Oak, Kentucky Coffee Tree. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 89 

Introduced Trees. 

Most of the following trees must be obtained from 
nurseries, though sometimes good specimens may be 
found by the roadsides or in the fields: 

Norway Maples, Honey Locust, 

Purple Beech, Schwerdler's Maple, 

Horse Chestnut, European Larch, 

ViRGiLEA (Yellow Wood). 

Evergreen Trees, Natives. 

White Pine, Canada Balsam, 

White Spruce, Juniper, 

Arbor ViT^ (White Cedar), Hemlock. 

Evergreen Trees, Introduced. 

Norway Spruce, Austrian Pine, 

Colorado Blue Spruce, Swiss Pine, 

Nordman's Fir, Japanese Cypress (Re- 

tinospora). 

Ornamental Shrubs. 

No matter how small a place one may have, there may 
be room for one or more ornamental shrubs or climbing 
vines. If the land owned is only large enough for the 
buildings and the necessary walks, shrubs may be 
planted in the angles of the buildings or comers of the 
fence, and vines may be made to grow over the gate- way, 
veranda, or porch, or to cover the w^alls of the buildings. 
On the north side we may plant rhododendrons, or Eng- 
lish ivies may be made to cling to the walls, while 
nearly any of the list on pp. 94, 95 may grow on the south, 
east or west if the soil be made rich and mellow. In 
some cases the soil may be only the gravel or clay ex- 
cavated in making the cellar, or dump material, which 
must be removed and replaced by good soil. 



go The Small Country Place 

Grouping of Shrubs. 

On places of larger area shrubs may be arranged in 
masses or groups, by the sides of walks and drives, as a 
setting in front of the foundation of the house, and in 
the angles, in front of outbuildings, and bank walls, 
etc. They are useful in carrying the mass of tree foliage 
down to the lawn, and make beautiful low screens, for 
hiding seats, terraces, the vegetable garden, or other 
low objects. Where the extent of the grounds will allow, 
groups of shrubs of one kind will produce more striking 
effects than if many varieties are mingled together. Thus 
a group or mass of roses, rhododendrons, hydrangeas, 
spiraeas, etc., may be placed, one in one corner of the 
grounds, another in front of the poultry house, another 
in front of the steps leading up to the side door, and 
another in front of a terrace. Then with a well-kept 
lawn with a glimpse of the drive or walk here and there 
in view, we have a more attractive picture than if in the 
groups of shrubbery we could see but one or two in 
bloom. Mixed groups are often desirable when close up 
to a much frequented veranda, so that something may 
be seen in bloom at all times during the summer. Along 
the roadways or on boundary lines between estates a 
row or border of shrubs marks the line very prettily. 
These may be set in a straight line or hedge or in an 
irregular border, wider in some places than in others. 
If the groups are large and of many kinds those 
growing the largest should be set in the middle or 
if the border is against the boundary line, a building, 
wall or terrace, the largest should be set next the line 
or the object covered, the smaller ones grading down 
to the lawn in front (Fig. 28). 



Decoration of Home Grounds 



93 



Hedges. 

Where the space is narrow or where there are other 
formal features upon the grounds, the closely-pruned 
hedge may be used with good effect especially on the 
boundary line, but is a difficult and expensive thing to 
grow and keep in good condition, and often furnishes a 
harbor for insects and vermin. A good well-kept hedge 
may serve as a fence or high screen, but those plants 




Fig. 29— Low Shrubs Planted in Front of Tall Ones. 

that naturally grow to trees must be used, like the 
honey locust, buckthorn, osage orange, etc. To keep 
these trees in a compact dwarf shape they must be 
pruned several times during each growing season. More 
graceful hedges are made of such plants as roses, spi- 
raeas, weigelas, lilacs, Japanese Barberry, etc., by a 
more open method of pruning, cutting out here and 
there old canes so that new shoots can grow that will 
give more and larger flowers than the old wood. 



94 The Small Country Place 

Pruning Shrubs. 

Shrubs that bloom early in the spring, like golden 
bell, spiraeas, deutzias, Japanese quince, etc., should not 
be much pruned until after blossoming. If pruned be- 
fore blooming many of the flower buds are cut away. 
Those that bloom later in the season, from June on, like 
roses, hydrangea, hibiscus, etc., should be pruned se- 
verely before growth begins. If upon a rosebush we 
leave but three or four strong shoots and cut these back 
to three or four buds we shall obtain one or more strong 
shoots from each cane and upon these there will be a 
good number of very perfect flowers, while if the bush is 
left unpruned we may get a larger number of smaller 
flowers. If we want a large shrub and a display of a 
mass of color we would not prune much, but if a fine 
display of large perfect flowers is desired, we would 
prune severely and thus cause a limited number of 
strong shoots to grow. 

List of Shrubs, Amative. 

Pink Azalea, Cranberry Shrub, 

Barberry, Wild Roses, 

Clethra, Sweet Briar. 

List of Shrubs, Introduced. 

Azalea, Japanese, Exochorda, 

Japanese Quince, Golden Bell, 

Deutzia, Rose of Sharon 

Weigela, Hydrangea, 

Spir^a, Lilac, 

Japanese Snow-ball, Roses, 

Japanese Barberry. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 



95 



Evergreen Shrubs. 

Native. Introduced. 

Rhododendrons, Boxwood, 

Mountain Laurel, Andromedas. 
American Holly. 

Climbing Shrubs or Vines. 

Among the most beautiful and satisfactory ornamen- 
tals for country homes are hardy vines (Figs. 30 and 31) 




Fig. 30 — A Beautiful Shingled Summer House. 
A Good Support for Climbing Vines. 

There are many varieties, some of which will grow under 
almost any condition of soil and exposure, and they do 
not need much space. They can be trained along fences, 
upon verandas, and the sides of buildings, or be made to 
cover arbors and summer-houses. Upon the sides of 
buildings they do best if carried away from the walls 
ten inches or a foot upon wires or other supports. 



96 



The Small Country Place 



Pruning Climbers. 

Unless climbers are heroically pruned every year the 
foliage soon becomes so dense that with close hot 
weather mildews and blights often seriously injure 

them. Before growth 
begins in the spring 
a considerable por- 
tion of the old wood 
should be cut away 
and the space occu- 
pied by it given to 
vigorous new shoots. 
The best results 
come from summer 
pruning or pinching. 
The ends of the canes 
should be kept tied 
to their proper sup- 
port and all shoots 
not needed to cover 
the trellis or support 
be pinched off, thus 
forcing the growth 
where most desired. 




m 



Fig. 31 — A Rose-Covered Porch. 



List of Climbers. 



Native. 



Introduced. 



American Woodbine, Clematis, Jackman's, 

Virgin's Bower (Clematis) Clematis Paniculata, 
Bitter Sweet, Honeysuckle (Japanese), 

Wistaria, Kokwa (Actinidia), 

Climbing Roses, Japanese Woodbine. 

Aristolochia (Dutchman's Pipe), 
Grapevines, Etc. 



Decoration of Home Grounds 97 

Removal of Walls and Fences. 

A great transformation has taken place along our 
roadsides and in front of our dwellings in the past 
quarter of a century, resulting from the removal of 
stone walls and fences. At best these are artificial ob- 
jects and sooner or later will become unsightly. They 
are unnecessary in most cases and are expensive to 
build and keep in repair. They are more or less a har- 
bor for weeds, mice, and vermin, and the space occu- 
pied by them can be more easily and satisfactorily 
cared for if the fences are removed. In some cases they 
are a necessity for the protection of orchards and fruit 
plantations, but often a conspicuous fence acts only as 
an incentive for malicious persons to cause trouble. If 
a fence is needed one of wire will be more protective 
and inconspicuous, and when painted green becomes 
ornamental. Fences are of course needed about land 
pastured by cattle and horses, but each owner of cattle, 
horses, dogs, etc., is expected to keep his stock at home 
or within the limits of the street, and is liable for any 
damage they may do while driven along the highway. 



CHAPTER V 



The Lawn and Flower Garden 



The Lawn. 

NO one feature of the outside decoration of the 
home is of so great importance as the lawn. 
We may have beautiful buildings, and an 
abundance of trees and shrubs upon our grounds, but 
if the grass is poor the place has an unkempt appear- 
ance. The lawn is the carpet or foreground upon 
which the various objects of beauty or comfort about 
the place are arranged. 

To make a perfect lawn easily and cheaply one must 
have good grass land — i.e., a deep, strong loam, clay 
loam, or clay soil, well underdrained. For the most per- 
fect growth of lawn grasses the land should be under- 
drained, if springy, deeply worked, and made rich with 
stable manure or suitable fertilizers. 

Time for Sowing Seed. 

Upon rich, moist soil, grass seed may be sown upon the 
lawn at any season of the year with good success, but 
the spring from April to June, or August and Septem- 
ber are perhaps the best times for sowing. If the seed 
starts later than September, during the fall it makes 
little growth, and the roots not extending deeply dur- 
ing the winter, the little plants are heaved out and we 
have a poor catch. Then with late fall seeding, unless 
the land is well covered with deeply rooted plants, it is 
likely to wash on sloping surfaces. The natural seeding 



Lawn and Flower Garden gg 

time for grasses is August and September for early 
maturing grasses, and the early spring for seeds that are 
scattered late in the fall. 

Lawn Grasses. 

The best grasses for the lawn are June grass (Ken- 
tucky blue grass), and red top, equal parts of each, with 
a little white clover (lo lbs. per acre); forty to fifty 
pounds of this mixture will seed an acre. The seed-bed 
should be very thoroughly made, working the soil deep 
and fine. It should be smoothed and rounded with a 
flowing outline and no perfectly level places except for 
lawn tennis or croquet grounds. Terraces should be 
avoided as artificial, difficult to make, and expensive to 
keep in good condition. The surface of a terrace will often 
slide down when the frost is coming out of the ground 
in the spring, and it soon becomes uneven, while it is 
difficult to cut the grass smoothly. A rounded, even 
though rather abrupt surface will remain solid, and the 
grass may be easily cut with the lawn-mower. Care 
must be taken that no basins are formed that will hold 
water after heavy rains or during the winter, as the 
grass is often killed by a close covering of ice. 

Sowing the Seed. 

When the soil has been satisfactorily graded and a 
seed-bed of fine rich soil made, the seed should be sown 
evenly over the whole surface. To ensure even distri- 
bution of seed requires some skill, but it can be best 
done by the amateur by dividing the seed into two or 
three equal lots. Then sow the first lot over the whole 
piece one way, and rake in with a long-toothed iron rake 
or potato-hook. Then sow the second lot over the whole 
surface in the opposite direction, and after raking it in 
sow the remainder diagonally over the whole piece. If 



lOO The Small Country Place 

this is done and the soil is not bunched up in raking 
the seed in, it will be evenly sown. 

If the lawn is shaded with large trees and the ground 
full of roots, a mixture of two parts June grass, two 
parts Canada blue grass, one red, one sheep's fescue, one 
meadow fescue, one perennial rye grass, and one part of 
white clover will cover the surface better than the ordi- 
nary mixture given above. 

Newly seeded lawns must not be cut with the lawn- 
mower until the grass has formed a firm sod. An ordi- 
nary grass scythe, sharp and well handled, should be 
used the first two or three times the grass is cut, care- 
fully raking off all clippings as soon as cut. 

After Care of the Lawn. 
With proper care a lawn on good soil should improve 
with age. Each fall just before the ground freezes a 
thin dressing of well-rotted stable manure should be 
spread upon the surface and raked sufficiently to work 
it down among the roots. Coarse strawy or green ma- 
nure, often used, is not necessary; it is unsightly and 
offensive both to those in the house and those passing. 
Each spring before growth begins a light seeding of the 
lawn grass mixture should be scattered over all thin or 
bare places, and a little later, when growth has become 
well started, an application of nitrate of soda at the rate 
of 200 to 300 lbs. per acre, or some good lawn dressing, 
will be very useful. Another light sowing of seed and 
fertilizer should be applied about the middle or last of 
August, that they may be washed down to the grass roots 
by the early fall rains. 

Weeds in the Lawn. 
Annual weeds like "finger grass," etc., are soon 
choked out by the above method of seeding and feeding, 
but biennial weeds like the dandelion, chiccory, chick- 



Lawn and Flower Garden loi 

weed, money plant, etc., must be dug out with a forked 
knife or digging tool. After digging out more grass seed 
should be sown over the spaces where they were removed. 

Water a Necessity. 

It is impossible to make a perfect lawn upon thin 
soil without an abundant supply of water especially in 
dry times. A little water applied to the surface does 
more harm than good in dry time, as it causes the roots 
to grow toward the surface and if the dry weather con- 
tinues the grass plants are very much weakened. When- 
ever water is applied in a dry time it should be run on 
in sufficient quantities to wet the lowest roots. A 
sprinkler run all night in one spot will not be more than 
enough. 

Improving Old Lawns. 

Many old lawns exposed to the hot sun, exhausted 
from want of plant food, or from the feeding roots of 
large trees, may be improved without much expense, but 
the perfect lawn cannot be expected under such condi- 
tions. If the land is clear of roots or other obstructions, 
it may be plowed or spaded and renewed as described 
for the new lawn. If the land is full of fine roots, with 
the large roots several inches below the surface, with a 
sharp spade these may be spaded up and shaken out of 
the soil, a liberal supply of fine manure worked in and 
seeded, when we may have a good lawn for a few years, 
after which this process must be repeated. If large 
roots come near the surface, the lawn must be improved 
by surface dressing. All obstructions that would be in 
the way of the lawn-mower should first be removed, any 
unevenness of the surface where possible should be 
smoothed off, and then all graded up with rich fine soil 
into which should be raked a liberal amount of lawn 
grass seed. 



102 The Small Country Place 

If the surface is fairly level and June grasses or other 
good lawn grasses are already growing, dressing with 
manure or fertilizers, seeding liberally fall and spring, 
and frequent cutting with the lawn-mower will often 
produce a very good lawn. Of the home supply of fer- 
tilizers, poultry droppings and wood ashes make an 
almost ideal dressing for the lawn. 

Lawit- Mowers and Their Care. 

With the ordinary grass scythe, well hung and skil- 
fully and frequently used, one may keep a lawn in fairly 
good condition, but where there is a considerable surface 
to go over, the lawn-mower becomes a necessity to keep 
a lawn in the best of order. These tools may be pur- 
chased at from $4 to $10 each, according to size and 
make, and when properly used and cared for may be 
made to last a lifetime. The modeiTi lawn-mowers are 
made so that as the blades come in contact with the 
shoe or "bed knife," the two wear off together and are 
thus self-sharpening. If the set screws for adjusting the 
shoe and blades are set very nicely and as wear takes 
place are slightly turned down, no further sharpening 
need be done unless the blades or bed knife are bent or 
dulled by striking stones or other hard substances. Much 
of the ease of running and cutting with the lawn-mower 
depends upon this adjustment and in keeping all parts 
cleaned and well oiled. The modern high wheel, ball- 
bearing machines run more easily than those of older 
patterns, but neither will work easily unless perfectly 
adjusted and well oiled. 

Flowers Upon The Lawn. 

While the flower garden may not add directly to the 
support of the family upon the farm, like ornamental 
trees and the fruit garden they help brighten many a 




Fig. 32 — Just Coming from the Flower Garden. 



Lawn and Flower Garden 105 

lonely spot and add much of beauty and brightness to 
our surroundings. The flower garden may be composed 
of a few little plants growing by the cottage door, a 
single bed in the lawn in front of the house, a part of the 
vegetable garden set aside for flowers, or a large and 
pretentious space occupied by many of the pet flowers 
of the family, and from which an abundance of blos- 
soms may be gathered to decorate the dining-table or 
the various rooms of the house when desired, or for sale 
(Fig. 32). 

As with most of the farm and garden crops, much of 
the success in flower growing depends upon the nature 
and richness of the soil. The land should be well under- 
drained if wet, and be made rich by working in fine 
stable manure, leaf mould or other organic matter. If 
the flower garden or beds are under large trees, much 
difficulty will be experienced in preventing their roots 
from taking up all the moisture and plant food we may 
apply. This can only be prevented by cutting off every 
year or two, with a sharp spade, the fine fibrous roots 
that work up into the beds, and replacing the soil thus 
taken with rich loam and manure. In this way we may 
hope to have a good show of annual plants or Dutch 
bulbs even under the dense shade of the elm, the most 
avaricious feeder of all our ornamental trees. 

Wild Flowers Upon The Lawn. 

While in the country we find almost everywhere an 
abundance of wild flowers, many of the most beautiful 
of these are seldom seen, though they may be success- 
fully transplanted to our grounds and gardens. 

Thus in a rocky, shaded place in a rather moist soil, 
or under the shade of trees, we may grow the blood-root 
(Sanguinaria) , the wake-robins (Trillum), hooded vio- 
lets, ferns, etc. Upon rocks in springy soil we will be 



lo6 The Small Country Place 

able to grow columbines (aquilegia), saxifrage, snow-on- 
the-mountain, etc. 

Native asters (A. cordefolium, A. undulatus), golden- 
rods, etc., will grow under avenues of trees, and plants 
of these and many other species may be established by 
transplanting clumps or by sowing the seeds just before 
the ground freezes in the fall. Other species of asters 
and golden-rods may be grown in more full exposure. 

Native Ferns. — There are few plants that are more 
satisfactory than many of our native ferns where we 
have suitable conditions for their growth and where 
they can be protected from injury by dogs, cats, and 
poultry. They succeed on a northern exposure and in 
a moist soil. If the soil is not right it may be easily 
made so by remxoving unfavorable soil and adding 
peaty or turfy soil from swamps or meadows and tamp- 
ing it firmly in place. Clumps of ferns may be dug in 
the fall before the ground freezes and planted, or they 
may be set just as they are beginning growth in the 
spring. About the only requirements of these plants 
during the summer are an abundance of water and not 
too full exposure to the sun. Fig. 33 shows a group of 
ferns and native shrubs massed with the house for a 
background. 

Lawn Perennials. 

There are many beautiful hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials especially adapted to growth upon the lawn, 
among which are, peonias, phloxes, day lilies, golden 
glow, iris, lily-of-the-valley, hollyhocks, larkspur, yucca, 
etc. These may be arranged in groups all of one kind, 
or in mixed groups, at various places about the lawn; 
in a line along the boundary or the sides of the walks; 
in masses by the sides of the steps, in a mass to cover 
the foundation of the house, etc. When the space to be 



Lawn and Flower Garden 109 

planted is small single specimens here and there about 
the lawn would be sufficient, and when well established 
would grow a long time and often spread to very large 
masses. When the space is larger, collections of the 
popular perennials will give much pleasure. 

Thus a large collection of choice varieties of peonies, 
phloxes, iris, etc., would be attractive and might become 
a source of some profit. In arranging shrubs and all 
kinds of plants upon the lawn it is most satisfactory to 
have them around the outsides, leaving as broad an ex- 
panse of lawn as possible. The lawn and the groups can 
in this way be more easily cared for. The border of the 
beds and spaces about each individual tree, shrub or 
plant should be cut true and smooth so that the lawn- 
mower may cut close up and the edges need no trim- 
ming with the grass hook or edge shears. 

Borders along the boundary line may be often planted 
with good effect of mixed perennials, the taller ones like 
the golden glow, hollyhock, larkspur, etc., being planted 
in the rear and others grading down to the lowest in 
front. 

Lawn Annuals or Bedding Plants. 

Many annuals or tender bedding plants are grown in 
beds upon the lawn with good effect. For these the 
soil must be prepared as for perennials or shrubs. If 
very dry and much exposed to the sun, such plants as 
coleus, portulaca, sedums, calendula, cercopsis, lantana, 
nasturtium, petunia, oxalis, zinnias, French marigold, 
gourds, castor beans, etc., will generally succeed. When 
there is more moisture and a deep rich soil a greater 
variety may be grown. Such plants as geraniums, 
cannas, dahlias, gladiolus, sweet peas, morning-glories, 
pansies, forget-me-nots, etc., are especially available. 

In a very deep moist soil many kinds of lilies will sue- 



no 



The Small Country Place 



ceed, though perhaps they will do better in the flower 
garden, where the whole space is given up to the cultiva- 
tion of flowers. In 

"**"" ' ■■■ ■' "^"^ - " " -i growing shrubs or 

i plants upon the lawn 
it must be kept in 
mind that we are 
trying to grow flow- 
ers, grass, and per- 
haps shrubs and 
trees, and a very 
large amount of 
plant food must be 
applied to keep up 
the soil fertility to 
a point where all 
will have an ade- 
quate supply. 




Fig. .34 — How Peony and other Herbaceous 
Perennial Roots are Divided for Trans- 
planting. 



The Flower Garden. 

The flower garden proper is a space set aside entirely 
for the growth of flowering plants. In many places it in- 
cludes shrubs, but as. the latter are gross feeders it will 
be found that herbaceous plants will succeed better by 
themselves. The flower garden may be set off from one 
side of the vegetable garden, where some parts may be 
cultivated by the horse (Fig. 37). 

For the best results the soil should be first made fine 
and mellow. The space should be laid out to a definite 
"plan, with sufficient, walks to get about among the 
plants, and yet the fewer walks we have the more space 
there will be for plants. Walks, too, being compacted 
and exposed to the sun will carry off the moisture faster 
than if it were all a cultivated surface. There is, how- 
ever, some advantage in having the garden planned 




Fig. 35 — The Flower Garden; Bulbs in Bloom in the Spring. 



Lawn and Flower Garden l 13 

with geometrical beds of various sizes, so that plants of 
different kinds may be put into beds of a size suitable 
for their growth. 

If, however, we attempt to arrange our plants ac- 
cording to size only, we may mix annuals and peren- 
nials in such a manner as to cause much confusion, and 
often a great irregularity in the appearance of the beds. 
A plan for a flower garden requires a great deal of care- 
ful study. 

Perennials. 

If we arrange all of the perennials in a central border 
or long bed we may place the tall ones like hollyhocks, 
larkspur, golden glow, boceonia, boltonia, helianthus, 
etc., in a line in the middle. If the border is along the 
boundary, the tall ones should be placed next the bound- 
ary line, with those next in height in front and the smaller 
kinds next the walk, so that the tops of all may be in 
full view. The special treatment required by peren- 
nials, in brief, is to give each kind an abundance of room 
at planting and to divide frequently the roots of those 
that tend to spread beyond their allotted space. Thus 
peonies, iris, golden glow, phloxes, etc., spread so rap- 
idly that the soil about them is soon exhausted, and 
the plants and flowers make a small growth, when the 
clump must be dug up and a smxall portion of it re- 
planted in its place in soil made rich by adding stable 
manure or by new soil carted in. Fig. 34 shows the 
method of dividing perennial roots like the peony, etc. 
The best time for replanting hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials is in the early fall, but many of them will succeed 
if replanted in the early spring. Lilies require an 
especially rich, deep, yet well drained soil. In a wet 
soil the bulbs grow small and near the surface, and in a 



114 '^^^ Small Country Place 

few years run out. These bulbs need frequent trans- 
planting, which should be done soon after the flower 
stalk turns yellow. 

Biennial Plants. 

Many biennial plants like hollyhocks, foxgloves, etc., 
are especially desirable for the home flower garden, and 
like many of the perennials may be easily grown from 
seeds. 

Growing Seedlings. — The seed-bed for all hardy her- 
baceous plants should be in a somewhat shaded place, 
but not entirely shut off from the sun. The soil should 
be firm and mellow, with a good supply of organic mat- 
ter in it from either well decomposed manure, leaf 
mould from the woods, or composted turf. The seeds 
should be carefully sown in rows and covered with fine 
soil two or three times the thickness of the seeds. Until 
the seeds burst through the soil the principal care will 
be to see that the surface of the soil does not get dry or 
that it is not so wet that the seeds will decay. In case 
of hot, dry weather, a shade of burlap stretched on a 
frame, lath or brush will prevent too much drying, and 
if heavy rains occur raised shutters should be placed 
over the bed. A light covering of sifted sphagnum moss 
on the surface of the soil will hold the moisture on the 
surface with no other shade or covering. After the 
seedlings are up much the same kind of care is needed. 
If too wet, they will "damp off" (decay); and if too 
dry, they will wilt down and grow slowly, or perhaps 
die. If the seeds come up thickly they should be thinned 
out, so that each one left may have space enough for 
full development. With many kinds of plants the little 
seedlings may be transplanted to other similar beds 
until they reach the desired size for transplanting to 
permanent beds. In transplanting in dry weather it is 



Lawn and Flower Garden 1 1 5 

best to water the ground thoroughly quite a Httle time 
before transplanting and then shade with boards, lat- 
tice or any similar covering for a few days after. If only 
small numbers of seedlings are to be transplanted it 
may be done late in the afternoon, when they will have 
a night in which to recover from the moving. 

Winter Protection for Hardy Plants. 

In northern sections, where there is severe freezing 
more or less alternating with thawing weather, some 
precautions are needed to protect the plants from 
severe injury or even destruction. If this covering is 
put on too thick, it will cause heating or fermentation 
and the plants are killed. Coarse hay, straw, pine 
needles, all make good protection. Coarse strawy ma- 
nure, if the garden is not in too conspicuous a place 
may be used, and will afford protection and supply 
plant-food the following season. All coverings should be 
removed before growth begins in the spring and before 
extremely warm weather, as any green foliage under 
it will be blanched and rendered weak. 

Dutch Bulbs. 

No class of plants gives so much of beauty for the 
time and expense incurred as the hyacinth, tulip, crocus, 
and other so-called Dutch bulbs (Fig. 35). Most of the 
bulbs used are imported from Holland, whence the name 
"Dutch bulb," and grow but one year, though many of 
them will continue under favorable conditions for a great 
many years from one planting. Thus the tulip, and the 
daffodil in a rich garden, will continue for a decade, or 
even a quarter of a century, and produce many good 
flowers. The hyacinth and crocus are not as lasting, 
but will continue to bloom freely for two or three years 
and sometimes longer. They may be planted in the 



ii6 , The Small Country Place 

flower garden, but are much more beautiful in beds 
upon the lawn with a background of green. The soil 
should be made rich, deep and mellow, and the bulbs 
planted as early in the fall as they can be obtained. 
If the bulbs are to be transplanted from one's own gar- 
den they should be dug as soon as the leaves have turned 
yellow and be kept in a cool, dry place until September 
or October, when they should be set from four to six 
inches deep. For the best effect hyacinths should be 
planted from eight to ten inches apart, tulips and nar- 
cissus six to eight inches, and crocuses four to six 
inches, but may be planted further apart with good re- 
sults. At the North, where the ground freezes deeply, 
the beds should be covered with from six to ten inches 
of coarse stable manure before freezing weather sets in, 
thus furnishing protection to the bulbs and enrichment 
of the soil. Before growth begins in the spring, the 
coarse part of this covering must be removed, or the 
flowers may not be able to force their way through, 
while the finer portion is left on the surface to decay. 

Windozu and Veranda Boxes. 

While window boxes are more especially adapted to 
city and village homes, yet as a portion of the family 
even in the country spends a large part of the time in- 
doors, these boxes will be enjoyed by them, especially 
when the family gather upon the veranda in the even- 
ing. The box should be made of good size, with holes 
in the bottom for drainage, and filled first with a layer 
of small stones, in broken pots, and then with rich soil 
made of about one-third decayed turf, one-third well 
rotted stable manure, and one- third sand. If in a very 
dry place a portion of the sand may be left out. Vines 
to run upward or droop over the box and blooming or 
foliage plants in the middle will produce beautiful results. 



CHAPTER VI 



The Family Garden 



THE principal aim of this volume is to encom-age 
living in the country, and we hope to show 
that with only a small garden a meagre 
income may be materially increased, and by hard 
work, promptness, and energy, may even be so increased 
as to furnish a good support for the family. 

The various lines of gardening and farming afford 
work for all members of the family; each one, large 
and small, may do something for their own support, and 
thus taking responsibilities early in life learn habits of 
industry and thrift that they would probably not ac- 
quire in any other way. Each member of the family, 
especially the children, should have their plot where 
they may plant what they choose and learn that results 
depend upon their personal efforts. The family garden 
especially affords an opportunity for the children to 
assist in picking the fruit, gathering vegetables, pulling 
weeds, and assisting in many other ways. 

The family garden proper, however, may be consid- 
ered as an additional source of income and comfort of 
living in the country, and not of a large income in cash, 
though a small area well cared for will often yield a 
considerable income from surplus not needed for family 
use. In succeeding chapters the details of the work of 
caring for fruits and vegetables are given in full, with 
the tools needed and how to protect the crops from 
insects and fungous pests. 

117 



ii8 The Small Country Place 

The family garden may consist of a very small area, 
only a bed of strawberries, a few currant bushes, rasp- 
berries, blackberries, two or three grapevines, an apple 
tree or two, a few radishes, lettuce, or other vegetable 
plants, or it may extend to a much larger area. 

Soil and Exposure, 

In but few cases can we expect the soil and exposure 
to be the best for a large variety of garden crops, though 
fair success may be expected in any ordinarily good soil 
if it is made rich with stable manure or fertilizer. On 
the north side of buildings where the sun strikes only in 
the morning and afternoon very few crops will grow. 
We may grow radishes, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflowers, 
dandelions, raspberries and blackberries, and possibly 
apples, but the vegetables and fruits that require more 
heat, like the cucumber, melon, corn, pepper, toma- 
toes, peaches, grapes, etc., must be planted in warm, 
sheltered places. In open, full exposure to sunlight and 
air, a greater variety of fruits or vegetables may be 
grown than if sheltered, though the degree of success 
with different crops will depend more or less upon 
whether this exposure is northerly or southerly. 

Mixed Plantings. 

Large and small fruits and vegetables may be grown 
readily on the same ground. The large tree fruits may 
be set wide apart, with the smaller ones in between, the 
bush fruits in between these in rows, and the vegetables 
in rows between the latter. If land is abundant and the 
different kinds of crops can be grown near, so as to be 
under the eye at all times, these three groups will do 
better if planted by themselves, that special treatment of 
fertilizers, cultivation, and spraying may be given to one 
without applying to all. 



The Family Garden 



In gardens of small size, however, this cannot well be 
done. Frequently the family garden is a continuation 
of the lawn or runs up close to the buildings so that 
such a division would be impossible. Fig. 36 shows a 
home lot of one acre, where only about one-third of an 
acre is available for the family garden. In this plan, 
the west boundary is 




Cherries 

© ® # ® 



200 Ft. 
Fig. 36 — Plan of Garden and Grounds. 



utilized for growing 
peach trees and currant 
bushes, and the south 
line for cherry trees. 
The north end of nearly 
one - third of an acre 
is devoted to apples, 
pears, plums, raspber- 
ries, blackberries, and 
strawberries and vege- 
tables. As a partial 
screen of the garden 
from the house a line 
of grapevines is planted 
south of the garden to be trained to a high wire trellis. 
Grapevines, too, may be trained to the south side of the 
house and stable. 

In the plan of the combined garden (Fig. 37) of one 
acre — 218 x 200 feet — the apple trees are set fifty feet 
apart in four rows, with a row of pear trees twenty-five 
feet apart between the first and second rows, and 
peaches, plums, or cherries between the third and fourth 
rows. Raspberries, blackberries and strawberries are to 
be set in rows between the second and third rows, or 
between pears and apples, leaving the other spaces for 
vegetables. Currant and gooseberry bushes may be set 
in the line of the apple or other large trees, as they are 
the least injured by shade. The first row of apple trees 



20 



The Small Country Place 



may be set nearer the north and east Hnes, thus making 
a clear space on the west of from thirty-five to fifty feet, 
and on the south of from forty to sixty feet, for small 
fruits or vegetables. The latter also can be grown be- 
tween all of the trees for at least ten to fifteen years, or 
until the trees begin to shade the whole ground. Along 
the north end may be planted grapevines, asparagus, 
rhubarb, etc., or the rows of vegetables or small fruit 
crops may be extended down to the line, leaving only 



JV^ 



200 Ft. 













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o° 




1 


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K 


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Apples 






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o 








y 








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o 

o 




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K 
X 
X 
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f 


Flums 




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-Currants 


w 


Flower Garden 
Hot Beds 


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Tool 












Shed 





Fig. 37 — Plan of a Garden of Fruit, Flowers and Vegetables. 



Space enough to turn the horse in cultivating. At the 
south end the wide space may be devoted to flowers, a 
few hot-beds may be located, and in one corner a small 
tool house, in which to keep the tools where they can 
be easily gotten at when wanted, would be convenient. 
Fig. 38 represents the same area, as Fig. 39, one acre— 
435 X 100 feet — with trees and vegetables on the east 
side, the small fruits in a group in the middle and veg- 
etables again on the west side. Other plans might be 
made giving more space to trees or vegetables or small 



The Family Garden 



121 



100 Ft. 



fruits as may be desired, but about the following dis- 
tances should be observed in planting. Fig. 39 illus- 
trates a larger mixed garden of fruits and vegetables. 
On the left is a large asparagus patch, and on the 
right, plum trees and currant bushes, while in the 
middle are turnips, beets, and carrots, all in long rows 
so that the work of cultivating can be done largely by 
the horse. 

Many experience difficulty in 
growing vegetables among trees, 
but planted at the distance 
given on the abo^'c plan it will 
be many 3xars before the trees 
will give shade enough to injure 
these crops, and by the rotation 
of crops or change of fertilizer 
crops should succeed and trees 
be kept in good condition. The 
continued use of large quanti- 
ties of stable manure alone often 
results in a sour and unhealthful 
condition of the soil that must 
be remedied by the use of lime 
(air slacked), hard wood ashes, 
or slag phosphate, once in three to five years. 

To supplement and make stable manure a complete 
fertihzer, sulphate of potash and slag phosphate — twentv- 
five tx) thirty-five pounds of the former to fifty to seventy 
pounds of the latter — may be added to each cord of 
manure. This may be mixed with the manure before 
spreading or be sown upon the land before the manure is 
worked in. Land among fruit trees should not be heav- 
ily manured unless the trees are bearing a heavy crop of 
fruit or the ground under them is closely occupied with 
other crops. One of the most common causes of failure 





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^ Apple 


1 


X X- 


"'Feach 


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0— ®- 


- Fear 


1 -2 






X <> 


- Fium 


s i!, 


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i ^ 


^ ^ \ 

•3 © 




^ xi >r 


- Cunan 


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3 










X X 






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X X 

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1 au^d 


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Fig. .3 


^— Plan of a ( 


jarden of 


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uit aiiel \ etiet 


ables. 



122 



The Small Country Place 



of fruit trees grown with garden crops is that the trees 
are abnormally forced and the soil is quickly exhausted 
by both crops, and for a time they are starved or the 
moisture is all taken out of the land by the two crops. 
If crops are grown under trees, the soil should be culti- 
vated frequently to let in sunlight and air and thus keep 
in the moisture. 

All kinds of fruits and vegetables are grown in the 
family garden, while in the commercial garden — market 




Fig. 39 — Mixed Garden and Farm Crops. 

garden — only a few kinds are grown and but a few va- 
rieties of each kind that are in demand in the markets 
where they are to be sold. We often get much pleasure 
from testing new fruits and vegetables, and new varie- 
ties of old ones, as they come out, but in nine cases in 
ten the new ones will be of less value than the old stand- 
ards. The work of testing new varieties we should leave 
to the experiment stations, which are well equipped for 
the work. 



The Family Garden 123 

Fruit Trees in Turf. 

The small fruits and vegetables must be cultivated, 
but many of the fruit trees may be in turf. Thus along 
the boundary lines, or next the street, cherry trees will 
grow to perfection if a little fertilizing material is put 
about them each year. The apple, pear and peach trees 
may be made to grow in any soil that will produce a good 
turf. Under this condition at planting a large hole must 
be dug and the tree carefully planted, with fine mellow 
soil packed firmly about the roots. A space about each 
tree from four to six feet in diameter should be spaded 
up and kept fine and mellow during the summer, or the 
same end may be obtained — i.e., retaining the moisture 
in the soil — by a mulch of coarse strawy manure, old 
hay, straw, or other organic matter, spread from three 
to six inches deep over the space as far as the branches 
spread. No crops of grass should be allowed to mature 
on land occupied by the trees, but be cut two or three 
times each season and allowed to lie upon the ground 
under the trees. If this is too conspicuous it may be 
raked up and fine, well rotted manure be raked in under 
the trees two or three times each summer. In growing 
fruit trees of any kind it must be borne in mind that un- 
less they are liberally fed, the large amount of growth 
of root, stem, leaf and fruit will soon exhaust the soil of 
most of its plant food. If the end shoots of apple, pear, 
cherry and plum trees do not make a growth of from six 
inches to two feet the trees are not in condition to pro- 
duce large crops of choice fruits. One needs to give fruit 
trees on the lawn more care as to beauty of form than 
if they were in an orchard, and while the trees are 
young they should be put into perfect shape by pinch- 
ing the ends of all shoots that are growling outside the 
outline prescribed and cutting out any branches that are 



124 



The Small Country Place 



crowding or resting upon others. For the general care 
of fruit trees, small fruits, and vegetables, see Chap. 
VII, on commercial fruit and vegetable growing. 

Cultivation of the Family Garden. 

In the accompanying plans all crops are arranged in 
rows, so that cultivation may be done by the horse. 
Even if one has no family horse the hire of one for a few 





Fin. 40— The Author',- ■■ W .■cl-lMllrr." .Note tlic W hct-l II.m-, 
Triangular Hoe, Rake.s of Two VViciths. 

hours when needed w411 be found profitable and will 
save much time and hard hand work. In the very small 
garden (Fig. 36), when the rows are short, the hand 
wheel-cultivator (Fig. 40) , will be found of great assist- 
ance. There are many kinds of these tools, most of them 
combined with the seed drill, all of which will do more 
or less good work. The one shown in the above picture 
of the author's " weed- killer " (Fig. 40) has the advantage 
that the high wheel and long handles enable the operator 




The Family Garden 125 

to stand erect and force the tool along by simply leaning 
the body forward, and it runs more easily than those 
with small wheels. With one of these tools one can do 
almost as good and as much work as the horse, and it 
would be much more quickly and better done than by 
hand. ]\lany kinds of tools and attachments come with 
each cultivator — fine teeth, thin blades for shaving off 
the weeds, plow blades for hilling, etc., which are 
interchangeable and may be quickly changed. 

The triangular hoe shown in the picture (Fig. 41) is 
unlike the common or " sunny side " hoe in the market, in 
that it is made from the common thin-bladed corn hoe 
with a nine or 
ten inch blade 
about three 
inches wide, the 

back or curved Fig. 41— The Triangular Hoe ; How Made. 

part being cut off as shown in the cut, with a sharp 
file or cold chisel. This makes a long cutting edge 
for shaving of the little weeds on the surface, with 
long, slender points that work in among closely planted 
crops, and stirs the soil more easily and deeply than the 
common square hoe generally used. The best time for 
killing weeds is just as they are breaking through the 
ground, and in a light soil this may be done quickly with 
the common garden rake between the rows and a small 
one with four or six teeth to work in and among the hills. 
With the wheel hand-cultivator, the "weed-killer" hoe, 
and rakes of two sizes, a large area of garden surface may 
be kept free from weeds and the soil light and mellow. 

Summer Fertilization. 

It is said that the Japanese are the most skilful people 
in the world in the use of fertilizer. They utilize all pos- 
sible fertilizing materials and apply frequently, working 



1 26 The Small Country Place 

it into the surface close to the roots, and in our garden 
work we may gain much by following their methods. If 
during any part of the season our crops are not growing 
as we would have them, a little nitrate of soda, poultry 
dropping, or other quickly soluble fertilizer, scattered 
close up to the rows and worked in with the rake or 
hand-cultivator, will cause a great improvement. These 
fertilizers, however, should not be applied late in the 
season, as they might cause late and immature growth, 
like unripe onions, coarse squashes, etc. 

Cold Frames and Hot-Beds. 

While these structures are more or less used in all 
kinds of garden work, they are especially useful in the 
family garden. When properly made and skilfully 
managed a very small area covered with glass may be 
made to produce a large amount of garden produce 
out of season and extend the season of supply at both 
ends (Fig. 77). 

For the best results preparation should be made in 
the fall by excavating a space from one to two feet deep, 
six feet wide, and the length of the number of sash to be 
used, especially at the North, where the ground freezes 
deeply. This space is filled with leaves, and when it is 
desired to start the beds in the spring the frames are 
adjusted and the sash, mats and shutters put on. After 
the bed is well warmed up by the sun's heat, the leaves 
are thrown out and heating manure put in their place. 
The manure for heating should be fresh and unfer- 
mented and be thrown into a large rounded pile in a 
cellar or shed, where it freezes very little or not at all. 
When well warmed up, and steaming vigorously, the 
pile is thrown over and thoroughly mixed and left to 
heat again. When this gets decidedly hot it is put into 
the hot-bed from six inches to two feet deep, according 



The Family Garden 127 

to the season and the crops to be grown. In the middle 
of winter the full two feet will be needed, while in April 
only a little will suffice. On top of this manure, 
which must *be trodden firmly , from four to six inches of 
fine rich soil should be placed to within ten inches to 
one foot of the glass. A thermometer should be placed 
in the heating material and when it has reached about 
100° and receded to 80° or 90°, seeds of tomatoes, pep- 
pers, egg-plants, cucumbers, corn, etc., may be sown, 
and'when it is down to 70° or 80°, seeds of radishes, cab- 
bage, cauliflower, beets, onions, etc. 

Hot-beds' are used for forcing lettuce, radishes, etc., 
and starting plants of cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, 
beets, tomatoes, and onions, to be transplanted into the 
open ground. Many other plants besides those men- 
tioned above may be forced in the hot-beds, such as 
peas, beets, onions, beans, cucumbers, etc., but the 
yield is so small and the time required for their ma- 
turity so great that there would be no profit — only an 
expensive luxury — in trying to compete with truck- 
growers at the South, who with modem methods of 
transportation can put a fairly good product into our 
markets at a very low price. 

For the cold frame no excavation is needed, only the 
leaves or other covering put on in the fall to keep the 
ground from freezing so that the space may be quickly 
warmed up when desired. No bottom heat is used; all 
the heat is secured from the sun and is held in the beds 
by glass, mats and shutters. 

Much skill must be exercised in running these frames. 
The sash should not be opened in the morning until the 
sun is well up, and should be closed before they cool off 
too much in the afternoon. Mats and shutters must be 
used to cover the frames at night and in very cold 
weather. Thermometers should be kept in each frame 



128 The Small Country Place 

and frequently examined. For radishes, lettuce, celery, 
cabbage, cauliflower, beets, onions, etc., a day tempera- 
ture of 50° to 60°, and at night 40° to 50°, will give the 
best results. For corn, cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, 
etc., the temperature should be 50° to 60° at night and 
60° to 70° during the day. 

Starting Seeds. 

In the hot-bed and cold frame the conditions for suc- 
cessful germination may be more certainly controlled 
than out of doors, as we can prevent drying out of the 
surface or too much moisture, either of which will gen- 
erally destroy seeds just beginning to germinate. We 
can also control the temperature. In the cold frame we 
generally cover the seeds more thinly than in the open 
air, by sifting over them a little soil two or three times 
the thickness of the seed. If the soil is rather moist, 
simply press the soil over the seed with the hand or 
with a block, but if it is decidedly dry, the soil may be 
settled by sprinkling with water. The critical time with 
seeds is just as they are breaking through the ground. 
If too dry at this time the seedlings will wilt, or if too 
wet, they will decay (damp off). For the further 
discussion of this subject see Chap. XI, on market 
gardening. 

Poultry and the Family Garden. 

These two elements of the small country home may 
be antagonistic forces, or they may be mutually 
beneficial. Among large fruit trees poultry of all 
ages may be of great benefit in keeping down insect 
pests, and may be kept in runs among them the year 
around. Among grapevines, raspberries, and black- 
berries, they may be allowed to run until the fruit be- 
gins to color. Among the currants and strawberries 



The Family Garden 



129 



small chickens may be allowed to run if too many are 
not kept in one place, but must be removed as soon as 
they begin to pick off the fruit. 

The vegetable garden must be fenced in or the poul- 
try kept in an enclosure where they cannot get into the 
garden, for even small chickens will scratch and pick 
the leaves from seedlings just coming out of the ground. 



CHAPTER VII 



Fruit Growing 



THE person who moves into the country for the 
purpose of earning a hving, must do it with the 
understanding that the business of farming in 
any of its branches — dairying, fruit growing, market 
gardening, etc. — must be conducted on the same prin- 
ciples as any other business to succeed. 

While Nature is often lavish in her bounty, and 
seems to give a large increase for our efforts upon the 
soil, average results will show that we are as much de- 
pendent upon correct methods, skilful management, and 
hard work for a good return from our labor as in any 
other calling. 

For the best results we must understand the nature of 
the soil, the needs of each crop to be grown as to soil and 
exposure, and the special care required, from the plant- 
ing of the seeds or plants to harvesting and marketing. 
To the novice we would say: Go slow. Do not risk all 
in your first efforts. Don't put all of your eggs in one 
basket. The business of farming must be learned just 
the same as any other business. Do what you can 
thoroughly, be prepared for disappointment, but ex- 
pect and work hard for success. Be a good scholar, and 
learn from every possible source. Get acquainted with 
successful farmers, fruit growers and gardeners in your 
neighborhood. As a rule they are good fellows and 
always ready to assist a beginner in every possible way. 
Take their advice, but adopt only that which applies to 
your immediate conditions. 

130 



Fruit Growing 131 

Equipment Required. 

The equipment required for successful fruit growing in- 
cludes suitable soil and exposure, tools for the cultiva- 
tion of the soil, saws and shears for pruning, ladders for 
gathering the fruit, space for preparing the fruit for 
market and storing until sold. A spraying outfit is also 
needed in every section of the country to protect our 
crops from insects and fungous pests. 

Soil. — In most sections of the Eastern United States, 
only small areas of one kind of soil may be found. The 
land is so tumbled about that we may find clay, loam, 
sandy or gravelly soil, some with slopes in every direc- 
tion, so that suitable land in small areas for any of the 
hardy fruits may be found in almost every direction. 

Plows. — For working the land a large plow for break- 
ing up and a small one for working in among the trees 
and small fruits are needed. If the fruit plantations are 
small several owners may unite and own one sulky or 
other kind of large plow. 

Harrows. — Much labor is saved in fitting and work- 
ing the land among trees by the use of harrows. The 
ordinary w^heel, shears, or spring-tooth harrows will do 
good work around trees while small, but when the 
branches spread and droop to the ground a special 
form of harrow, in which the blades are spread apart, 
must be used. This enables the horses to go outside 
the branches while the harrow hugs in under them. 

Cultivators. — Most of the harrows in use are made for 
two horses, but as one horse can generally do all the 
work on a small fruit plantation, the cultivator becomes 
the chief implement for working the soil between the 
trees and among small fruits. Many of these tools are 
provided with several kinds of teeth, wings and other 
combinations, like the Planet Jr., Iron Age, etc. The 



132 The Small Country Place 

spring-tooth cultivator is especially useful in stony- 
soil, its action being lifting rather than scraping or 
dragging, as with many others. With the harrow or 
cultivator, starting early in the spring when the ground 
is soft, the land may be kept in a fine, mellow condi- 
tion without the use of the plow. 

Weeders. — After the surface of the ground has been 
made fine and mellow the weeder will keep down all 
weeds if run frequently enough, and with it spread wide 
one can go over a large area in a short time. The weed- 
ers with straight teeth do better work than those with 
curved teeth, though the "adjustable weeders" which 
have curved teeth are convenient for running between 
narrow rows. 

Spades and Spading Forks become a necessity in 
digging and planting trees and bush fruits, and in dig- 
ging about young trees or in places where the plow will 
not reach. The spading fork is more serviceable, and is 
easily used where the soil is full of small stones or coarse 
organic matter. 

Hoes and Rakes. — While we may do nearly all of the 
work about small trees and small fruit plants with the 
cultivator, there will be some spaces where the hand hoe 
must be used. As about all of the necessary stirring 
of the soil is done by the cultivator or harrow, the only 
use for the hoe is to cut. up small weeds that grow 
around the hills, and this hoe should have a thin, sharp 
blade for cutting only. The triangular hoe shown in 
Fig. 41 will be found the most satisfactory for all kinds 
of garden hoeing except hilling up, and that can gen- 
erally be best done with the cultivator or the hand 
wheel-hoe. 

For stirring the soil among the rows of garden plants 
where the cultivator cannot run, the steel-toothed gar- 
den rake is a tool that will do more work than the hoe. 



Fruit Growing 133 

Two rakes are needed, one with twelve to fifteen teeth 
to work between the rows and one with four to six 
teeth to work in between the plants and hills. The 
wheel hand-cultivator shown in Fig. 40 will be found 
useful among the small fruits. With the large wheel 
of this hoe one can run it easily and do much better 
work than with a smaller wheel. 

Trowels. — For transplanting strawberry and other 
small plants one cannot get along without the garden 
trowel. Those with the shank welded to the blade are 
better than those with the shanks riveted. 

Saws. — In growing tree fruits saws are necessary, for 
while we should never make a cut upon a tree without 
some good reason, there are many times when we must 
prune more or less. For cutting ofi large branches a saw 
with rather large teeth is needed, the teeth pointing for- 
ward a little, like the splitting saw, and set rather wide. 
For cutting small branches, grafting, etc., a saw with 
fine teeth is better. The Paragon saw has a curved 
blade, the teeth on the inside pointing toward the 
handle while those on the outside point toward the end. 
This enables the pruner, when in the tree or on the lad- 
der, to reach a branch over his head or at arm's length 
in front and cut without bearing down, simply pulling 
the saw forward, while a branch lower down may be 
cut bv running the saw forward and downward. A 
long slender saw is very convenient for cutting when 
two branches come close together, or if placed upon a 
pole to cut small branches that could not be reached 
from the ladder, and for marking from the ground 
branches that are to be cut by men in the trees. 

Pruning Shears and Hooks. — Pruning shears with 
handles two to three feet long are very serviceable for 
cutting stout canes of raspberries, grapevines, and low 
branches from fruit trees. Pruning hooks with long 



134 The Small Country Place 

handles are indispensable for cutting the ends of long 
shoots in the tops of trees, and cutting off clusters of 
insects and their nests. The thorny dead canes of the 
blackberry plantation are best cut out with a hooked 
blade attached to a fork-handle about four or five feet 
long. 

The hand pruning shears are needed for pruning 
vines, shrubs, currant bushes, and the ends of raspberry 
and blackberry canes, etc. 

Horses and Wagons. — The labor conditions are such 
at the present time that little or no profit can be made 
from farm or garden crops if we have to hire much help ; 
therefore we must do all that is possible with horse 
power, and horses and wagons are needed upon the 
farm both for pleasure and profit. Wagons are needed 
to draw supplies and carry produce to market. For 
soft, perishable stuff a spring wagon is useful, but for 
carting manure, and heavy farm products, a wagon 
without springs is better. By using bolster springs a 
wagon may be quickly changed from one to the other. 
The manure spreader, mowing machine, horse rake, and 
weeder, are desirable even upon a small place and become 
a necessity when a large business in general farming is 
done. 

Packing and Storage Room. — With almost all kinds 
of fruit some place is needed in which to prepare it for 
market or store it for a greater or less time after it is 
gathered. For small fruits we need a place where they 
can be put into a cool atmosphere after being picked 
and be kept until shipped. This may be a cool cellar or 
basement room on the north side of the house or other 
building, or it may be a cool room with ice stored over- 
head or along the sides. The former, however, is better, 
the atmosphere being dry — while the latter will often be 
quite moist. For storing fruit and vegetables during the 



Fruit Growing 135 

winter, a cellar where the temperature can be kept near 
freezing is desirable. It should be slightly moist to pre- 
vent wilting of fruit or vegetables. If the cellar is too 
dry, fruit and vegetables may be kept from wilting by 
storing in forest or other tree leaves. If the latter, how- 
ever, are too moist and the cellar is very warm they will 
heat and cause decay. 

Fruit Growing as a Business. 

Fruit growing has many attractions. It is a business 
in which we often hear of large profits being made, yet 
when we come to sum up the average we find that fail- 
ures are frequent and the business is not more profit- 
able than many others. It, however, has many attrac- 
tions aside from the financial question. The fruit trees 
in bloom and trees and vines in fruit are especially beau- 
tiful; and the study of varieties, and watching the devel- 
opment of the plant or tree from small beginnings, keep 
us interested in things outside ourselves. When prop- 
erly and skilfully conducted, large profits may be made 
from all of our fruit crops. 

The markets of our country are among the best in 
the world. Our people can and do pay better prices for 
choice products than any other people. Yet the supply 
of choice fruit that comes to our markets from all parts 
of the world is so great that prices do not rule high. 
Choice fruit, however, will always sell at good prices, and 
when economically grown there is often a large profit in 
growing it. 

The Apple. 

This is the most important tree fruit of the temperate 
zone. It is grown from Mexico to Northern Canada and 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Apples grown from 
New York City to Northern Canada and from Nova 
Scotia to Michigan are of better quality than those 



136 The Small Country Place 

from any other section of the world. Apples from 
Colorado, Oregon, Washington, Nebraska, and other ex- 
treme Western states are often of large size and beau- 
tiful color, but are coarse in texture and of poor quality. 
The apple is very prolific, single trees frequently yield- 
ing fifteen to twenty barrels of fruit. Two acres are 
known to have produced fruit in one season that sold 
for $500. There are within the limits of the city of 
Worcester, Mass., seven young trees that produced 
one hundred and seven dollars ($107) worth of 
fruit in a single season. Three trees in Williamsburg, 
Mass., are reported to have yielded sixty-five barrels of 
apples. 

The Best Soil. 

The soil best suited for the growth of the apple is a 
strong moist loam, a clay loam, or a clay soil, well under- 
drained. The noted apple growing sections of the coun- 
try are Nova Scotia, Maine, Canada, northern New 
England, Champlain Valley, Vermont, northern New 
York, and Michigan, and other localities where the soil 
is "good grass land." The best results are obtained 
where the land is deeply fitted and kept thoroughly cul- 
tivated. If it is not in good condition to start with, it 
may be cheaply made so by growing and plowing under 
cover crops like clover, rye, peas and oats, soybean, corn, 
peas and barley, etc., using from 300 to 500 pounds of 
some good grain fertilizer per acre, or a light dressing of 
manure, if the land is very poor. Thus upon land 
plowed the spring previous to planting we may sow very 
early peas and oats, one and one-half bushel of the formei-, 
two of the latter. When the peas are in bloom and the 
oats heading out plow under and at once sow buckwheat. 
Let this grow until the first to middle of August, then 
plow under and sow peas and barley. This latter crop 
will grow until severe freezing weather, and should be 



Fruit Growing 



37 



allowed to lie upon the ground until the following spring 
to protect it from wind and washing. If the growth is a 
good one no weeds will start early in the spring and it 
may be plowed under at any time up to the middle of 
May or when one is ready to plant the trees. This treat- 
ment will put the land in condition for a quick growth 
of trees, and any crop that may be planted among 
them. 

Selection and Arrangement of Trees. 

Young quickly 
grown, No. i apple 
trees, two 3- ears old, 
should be selected. 
If these can be found 
in nurseries near at 
home they are much 
to be preferred to 
those bought from dis- 
tant nurseries, there 
are so many risks of 
injury in transporting 
them a long distance. 
Only well known and 
reliable nurseries 
should be patronized 
unless one can see the 
trees before purchas- 
ing. Fall is the best 
time forplantingapple 
and pear trees, while 
the peach, plum and 
cherry had better be 
planted in the spring. 

In the orchard it is generally best not to mix the dif- 
ferent kinds of fruits, but peaches may be set in among 




a b 

No. 1 Two-Year-Old Tree as it 
comes from the Nursery; "6," the 
Properly Pruned for Planting. 



Fig. 42- 



138 The Small Country Place 

the apples, as they are short lived and an income may be 
expected after from four to six years, that will ma- 
terially aid in paying expenses, and under favorable con- 
ditions might pay all expenses to date. In the accom- 
panying scheme standard varieties of apples like the 
Baldwin, King, Spy, etc., are planted forty to fifty feet 
apart, with "fillers," — varieties that come into bearing 
early and make rather small trees, like Hubbardston, 
Wealthy, etc., — set in between at twenty to twenty-five 
feet distance. Upon rather light land where the trees 
will not grow to very large size this distance may be 
forty feet for the permanent trees and twenty for 
the fillers. If the land is suitable and is on an elevation, 
with a north or western exposure, peach trees may be 
used as fillers, but if on a southern exposure they will 
not do as well unless the elevation is quite high above 
the surrounding land. 

At these distances crops of vegetables or any other 
hoed crop may be planted among the trees for six to 
eight years, though these crops will not prove as profit- 
able among the trees as in open fields by themselves. 

Ctdtivation. 

If hoed garden crops are grown among the trees this 
is all the cultivation needed, but fertilization material 
sufficient for both crops must be applied or the trees will 
suffer. ' Frequently, however, it may be best not to grow 
any crop under or between the trees, in which case the 
cultivation must be wholly charged to the orchard and 
the cost reduced to the lowest possible point. The mod- 
em orchard wheel shears or spring-tooth harrows are 
so arranged that the blades are carried out by a 
spreader beyond the track of the horses and will 
work up close to the trees without endangering them 
with the eveners or whiffietrees. With one of these mod- 



Fruit Growing 139 

ern tools run frequently, the work of cultivating an 
orchard, killing all weeds, and keeping in the moisture 
in dry weather, will be reduced to a very low figure. 

A Cover Crop. 

This cultivation should be kept up from the beginning 
of growth in the spring until about August ist, when 
peas and barley may be sown, which will lie on the 
ground during the winter, to protect the land from 
blowing and washing, and can be plowed under at any 
time up to June. The advantage of this crop over 
clovers, rye, or vetch, is that it makes no growth during 
the spring to carry off moisture or plant food, which 
might result in much injury in a severe drouth during 
April or early May. Rye or crimson clover makes but 
little growth at the North until the middle or last of 
May, and would produce a very small amount of organic 
matter to turn under until later in the season. Red 
clover makes a good growth in the fall and supplies a 
large amount of organic matter in top and root for 
turning under. With the above treatment no manure 
and little fertilizers need be applied to the trees until 
they begin to bear. 

Cost of an Orchard. 

The estimated cost of an apple orchard per acre may 
be stated as follows: 

FIRST YEAR BEFORE PLANTING. 

Plowing $3 . 00 

Peas and oats (seed) 3 • 00 

Peas and barley (seed) 3-5° 

Seeding 2 . 00 

$11.50 



140 The Small Country Place 



SECOND YEAR. 

Plowing and harrowing $ 3.00 

Apple trees 109 @, loc 10.90 

Planting 2 . 00 

Harrowing 5 . 00 

Harrowing and seeding with peas and 

barley ....'. 4 . 00 

$24.90 

THIRD YEAR. 

Plowing and cultivation $5.00 

Cover crop of peas and barley 4 . 00 

Pruning and spraying 3 • 00 

$12.00 

SUCCEEDING YEARS. 

Cultivation and cover crop $10.00 

Spraying and pruning 5 . 00 

$15.00 
Cost with garden crops in orchard: 

FIRST YEAR. 

Fitting land $11.50 

SECOND YEAR. 

Plowing and harrowing $3 . 00 

Trees 109 @. loc 10.90 

Planting 2 . 00 

$15-90 

SUCCEEDING YEARS. 

Spraying and pruning. $5 . 00 

Cost with peach trees as fillers: 

Apple trees, 30 @ loc $3.00 

Peach " 80 '• 5c 4.00 

$1 2.00 



Fruit Growing 141 

Apple trees will cost from $8 to $10 per hundred and 
peach trees from $4 to $8 per hundred, according to size 
and quantity purchased, and the difference in cost of 
establishing an orchard with apple trees or peach trees 
as fillers is about $3.90. 

Thus it will be seen that the cost of establishing an 
orchard on land not given to other crops for the first 
eight or ten years, after which it is expected to yield 
some income, makes it a question whether or not such an 
enterprise with apples alone would be profitable unless 
undertaken upon a large scale, when the proportionate 
cost might be largely reduced. With peach trees as 
fillers or when crops are grown among the trees there is 
a much greater chance of profit. 

Apple Trees in Turf. 

In strong, rich, moist land, when an abundance of 
manure or mulching material is available, apple and 
even peach trees may be successfully grown in the 
turf. This lessens the cost of establishment, but unless 
the conditions are especially favoraVjle the trees will not 
make as rapid growth as under cultivation. Where 
trees in turf can be made to produce a vigorous growth 
the fruit is generally more brilliant in color, of better 
quality, and will keep longer. This method, however, 
is not to be recommended unless the above conditions 
can be fully met. By this method land that cg^nnot be 
used for any other purpose except forest growth may be 
made to produce moderate crops of most beautiful and 
highly colored and flavored fruit. 

An 3^ coarse organic matter like swamp hay, brakes, 
fine brush, forest leaves, etc., may be used as a mulch, 
but it must be draAvn away from the trunks of small 
trees in the fall to prevent mice from feeding upon 
the bark. If the land is covered with leaves, brush and 



142 



The Small Country Place 



grass, it is best to paint the trunks of young trees with 
freshly slacked lime wash in which is mixed a tablespoon- 
ful of Paris green to one gallon of the lime wash. An- 
other danger to the trees under this condition is from 
fire, which if started during high winds might destroy 
many trees. The mulch should be placed on the wind- 
ward side of the trees, which in most sections of the 
Eastern United States is the east, when the flames would 




Fig. 43 — A Tall Apple Tree Before Pruning. 

be blown away from them. If placed on the north or 
west sides the flames would be blown toward them. 

Renovating Old Trees. 

Throughout the older settled portions of the United 
States may be found old trees in almost every stage of 
decline and of a great many varieties, producing more 
or less fruit but of so poor quality as to be of little value. 
These trees are, therefore, neglected and serve only as 



Fruit Growing 



143 



breeding places for all sorts of insects and fungous pests. 
Where the trunks and main branches of these old trees 
are sound the tall spreading branches may be headed 
in, the lower ones thinned out where needed, and 
in a few years a more spreading and vigorous head 
produced. 

If the varieties are such as are not in demand vigor- 
ous trees may be grafted and in three or four years made 




Fig. 44— a Tall Apple Tree After Pruning. 

to produce Baldwin, Wealthy or any other variety for 
which there is a good market. If the trees are weak in 
growth the ground under them should be first fertilized, 
and the head cut back so as to produce a vigorous 
growth. 

Fig. 43 represents an old tree before being pruned. 

Fig. 44 shows the same old tree after pruning. 

Fig. 45 shows the same old tree regrafted, 



144 



The Small Country Place 



Grafting. 

Grafting is work that any one at all skilled in the use 
of a knife can do, yet it will be found that to graft over 
large trees will require much time and the young trees 
should have attention first. The process of grafting is 




Fig. 45- 



-A Tall Apple Tree at the End of the First Season After 
Heading Back. 



fully illustrated in most works upon fruit culttn-e but a 
brief description may be desirable here (Figs. 46, 47, 48). 

Tools for Grafting. 

For this work one needs a fine-toothed saw to cut off 
the stock, a large knife to pare the end of the stock, a 
grafting chisel to split the stock, a small sharp knife to 
cut the scion, and wax for covering the wound. Begin- 
ning at the top of the tree, stocks from one to three inches 
in diameter are cut off squarely, at a distance from the 
centre of the tree that will make a good formed head. 



Fruit Growing 



'45 



These stocks are pared smoothly; then, beginning at 
the highest so that the grafts inserted will not be broken 
out, the stocks are split with the chisel, and the wedge 
inserted to hold open the cleft 
until the scion is inserted, as in 
Fig. 46. The scion (a part of 
a shoot of one year's growth 
with two buds upon it, cut 
from the outside of the tree,) is 
then cut wedge-shaped in two 
directions and inserted into the 
stock so that the inner bark of 
both scion and stock shall be in 
contact as much as possible. When 
in place the wedge is knocked out 




Fig. 46 — Grafting : How the Stock 
is Cut and Split. 



the scions are 
and the stock 



Fig. 47 — Grafting : How the Scions are Cut. 

presses the two firmly together. Should the stock be 
less than an inch in diameter, it is generally best to 
bind it firmly with raffia fibre or other soft flat-tying 
material. When all is done every cut surface must be 
covered with wax to keep out air and water (Fig. 48). 




146 The Small Country Place 

Grafting wax may be purchased of any dealer in horti- 
cultural supplies, or may be made of four parts rosin, 
two parts beeswax, and one part tallow or linseed oil. 
When these are thoroughly melted together in a kettle 
and cooled a little the mixture may be poured into a pail 
of water and then drawn out in sticks like molasses 
candy, or it may be allowed to become nearly hard and 

then cut out of the kettle 
and drawn. For grafting in 
i I cold weather a little more oil 

or tallow may be used. In 
covering the wounds the wax 
is drawn out in small strips 
and pressed firmly over the 
split on each side, over the 
top of the cleft, crowding it 

Fig. 48— Grafting : Stock After , . , , - ° 

the Wax Has Been Put On. dOWn mto the clcit, and a 

little on the end of each scion. To keep the wax from 
sticking to the fingers a little soap or beef or mutton 
tallow may be rubbed over the hands. 

Time for Grafting. — For the apple and pear the best 
time is just as the buds are beginning to swell. For 
plums and cherries the work should be done a week or 
two earlier. Fig. 49 shows a tree one year after graft- 
ing. Fig. 50 one three years after grafting. 

Pruning or regrafting alone, however, will not reno- 
vate old fruit trees permanently; more plant food of 
some kind must be applied. A heavy mulch of straw, 
coarse manure, forest leaves, brush, etc., spread out as 
far as the branches reach, or plowing and cultivating 
must be given them, or they will relapse into their old 
condition in a very few years. To produce high color 
and fine quality in our fruit some potash is needed in 
addition to the fertilizing elements in our stable manure 
and mulch. This may be wood ashes from one-half to 



Fruit Growing 



147 



one ton per acre or 300 to 500 pounds of sulphate of 
potash per acre. If the trees are making a slow 
growth of wood from 100 to 300 pounds of nitrate of 





Fig. 49 — An Apple Tree One Year 
After Grafting-. 



Fig. 50 — An Apple Tree Three Years 
After Grafting. 



soda sown just as the buds begin to swell will force the 
growth of wood early in the season and produce an 
early ripening of the fruit in the fall. 

Pruning Fruit Trees. 

All fruit trees will grow out of shape and condition 
for producing the most and best crops of fruit if left to 
themselves, and they may be either improved or injured 
by pruning. The apple orchard of the Eastern United 
States as a rule has been seriously injured by pruning. 
We have usually planted too closely, then as the trees 
grow together the lower branches become weak and we 
cut them off, and the process is kept up until we have 
but a few long bare branches stretching high into the 
air (Fig. 51). 

The sap moves slowly in these long bare branches, the 
leaves are small and the fruit imperfect in color, small 



148 



The Small Country Place 



and of poor quality. The remedy for this is, first, for 
young trees, to plant further apart, and for old trees, 





Fig. 51 — An Old Orchard Pruned from Below Only. 

to thin out where too close and cut back the long 
branches and thus force the growth into the lower 
branches as shown in Figs. 52, 53 and 54. 



'\md^^, 




\^ 



Fig. 52 — An Old Orchard Before Pruning. 

In an orchard with trees planted twenty to twenty-five 
feet apart, when the branches begin to touch we may 
obtain just as much fruit if one-half of them are cut out, 



Fruit Growing 



149 



and those remaining will go on improving, while if we 
do not thin out all will be seriously injured in a very 




Fig. 53 — An Old Orchard After Pruning- 

few years. Fig. 55 shows a perfect tree produced by 
an abundance of room and heading in from the top. 




Fig. 54 — An Old Orchard the Autumn After Pruning. 

Dont Cut Away all the Sprouts Inside the Tree. 

Most trees that have been pruned until the bare 
branches stretch high in the air are making a great 
effort to overcome the injury by throwing out numerous 
sprouts and suckers. These should not all be cut off, 




150 The Small Country Place 

but where there is space above for them to develop they 

should be allowed to grow, when in a few years they 

become the best part 
of the trees and we 
may then thin out 
some of the old wood 

. X'- that has become weak. 

p-«^^^--' .^^flH If a- few of these 

sprouts are allowed to 
grow each year we 
will have an entirely 
new head in a very 

i^iG. 55 — A Perfect lv-8hape(i Apple Tree, . -r-\- ^ 

Produced by Cutting In the Tops. tcW ycarS. rig. 56 

shows a convenient ladder for working among low 
trees. 

Varieties. 

There is no section of the country where too many 
worthless varieties of apples are not grown. There is 
hardly a state in the union where more than five or six 
kinds can be grown with much profit. To decide what 
varieties one had best grow one must consult the mar- 
kets, and the neighboring growers as to what they find 
the best adapted to their soil and most profitable. In 
old orchards we must get rid of the worthless varieties 
by cutting them down or regrafting, as there can be only 
loss in caring for them. 

It is impossible to give a short list that will be best 
for all localities, but the following is suggested as one 
that includes varieties of especial value in many localities: 

Summer. — Astrachan, Williams, Yellow Transparent. 

Autumn. — Gravenstein, Wealthy, Macintosh, Fall 
Pippin. 

Winter. — Baldwin, Hubbardston, Spy, King, Sutton, 
Roxbury Russett. 



Fruit Growing 151 

Harvesting Apples. 

Much of the value of any fruit crop depends upon how 
it is harvested. For first-class fruit it must be hand 
picked, though with low-headed young trees and a mulch 
on the ground we may let such varieties as Astrachan, 
Williams, Wealthy, Gravenstein, etc., drop to the 
ground, and sell them at good prices for immediate use. 

For harvesting apples a variety of lengths of ladders is 
necessary, according to the character of the trees. The 
shorter the ladder that can be used the better and 
quicker will the picking be done. The tripod ladder 
shown in Fig. 56 is a very cheap one and easily con- 
structed, one that will stand anywhere and occupies 
little space when the leg is folded in. The leg is bolted 
in between the two side pieces, making a very strong but 
light ladder. 

Small baskets holding from a peck to a half bushel 
with a bale are necessary to pick into while in the tree. 

Time for Harvesting Apples. 

Early apples to be sent to market must be picked as 
soon as fully grown but before they become mellow. 
Such varieties as Astrachan, Williams, Gravenstein, 
etc., as previously mentioned, if intended for a local mar- 
ket, may be allowed to fall upon mulch if the trees are 
not too high. When ripened in this manner the fruit is 
more brilliantly colored, of better quality, and is more 
cheaply picked from the ground than from the trees. 

Winter varieties should not be picked until fully 
grown and well colored, but before severe weather, which 
in the New England states ranges from September 20 to 
October 20, according to the season and the variety. 

To keep well, apples should be put into a cool place as 
soon as possible after picking. This may be a north shed. 



152 The Small Country Place 

or a north room in the basement of the dwelHng-house, 
unless one has a cold-storage room cooled by ice or other 
artificial means. They may be picked and put into clean 
dr}^ barrels or boxes and put at once into the shed or 
cellar stacked one above another, or put in shallow bins. 

To keep the temperature low where there is no arti- 
ficial means of cooling, doors and windows may be 
opened on cold nights and closed during the daytime. 

The temperature may be reduced to the right point 
at start by using a mixture of salt and ice (ice cream 
freezing mixture), in large tubs or boxes. A half ton of 
ice and 50 to 100 pounds of salt will cool quite a large 
space down to 35° to 40°, at which apples will keep 
until cold weather comes on, when the temperature may 
be reduced to 32°, which is about the best point for keep- 
ing this fruit. 

The Best Package for Apples. 

For shipping apples to distant markets, the barrel 
seems to be the most in favor, in most sections of the 
country, but for local markets in Eastern United States 
the bushel box is very largely used. This is practically 
a return package. You deliver your fruit and get an 
empty box in return or are paid its value. As ordinarily 
marketed the fruit is not faced but the box is filled a 
little above the level with the top of the box so that 
they cannot be stacked one above another. By the use 
of a cover facing may be done, thp cover being nailed on 
and the bottom taken off; the fruit is faced on this 
cover, and when the box is full the bottom is nailed on. 
By this method the apples are more or less bruised, but 
by putting a cushion of corrugated paper under the 
cover this may be obviated. The box is much more 
easily handled, occupies less space in shipping and stor- 
ing, and supplies nearer the amount of fruit the con- 



Fruit Growing 153 

sumer demands. Extra fancy fruit in boxes often sells 
for from $1.50 to $3.00 per bushel box. The method of 
packing and heading apples in barrels is shown in 
Fig. 98- 

Insects Attacking the Apple. 

The most injurious insects attacking the apple are the 
codling moth, apple maggot, and apple borer. The cod- 
ling moth is the insect that makes the wormy apples. 
The eggs are laid upon the apple or leaves near it, from 
which when hatched comes a very minute worm that 
enters the apple at the blossom end, feeding inside, and 
when mature coming out at some other point. The rem- 
edy for this pest is Paris green or arsenate of lead applied 
in the Bordeaux mixture, — copper sulphate and lime — 
(see experiment station bulletins) , first, just as soon as the 
petals of the flowers have fallen, and second, a week or 
ten days later. Much may also be done to keep this pest 
under control by picking up all dropped fruit and feed- 
ing it to pigs or other animals. 

The apple maggot, the insect that works so abundantly 
in sweet and mild-flavored fruit, causing decay in a very 
short time, cannot be destroyed by any spraying ma- 
terial, but its depredations may be greatly reduced by 
feeding the fruit as mentioned above for the codling 
moth. 

The apple borer attacks the trunk, especially of young 
trees. The first year it feeds upon the inner bark and 
sap-wood near the ground; the second year it works in 
deeper and makes a turn upwards, when it feeds for a 
year and then works out to the bark, where it escapes 
as a perfect insect. The remedy for this pest is to ex- 
amine the trees in May and again in September. The 
young larvae will be found by paring off the outer bark 
where the chips are thrown out by the young borers, 



1 54 The Small Country Place 

and killing them with a knife. The older borers must be 
killed with a flexible wire forced into their holes. If, 
however, all of the young borers are destroyed in May 
and September there will be no large ones to kill in this 
way. 

All holes made by the escaping insects should be filled 
with putty or thick paint to prevent decay of the wood 
around the injured parts. The San Jose scale in some 
sections is proving a serious menace to apple growing. 
It is destroyed by the lime and sulphur mixture and by 
some of the soluble oils. For further directions for the 
control of these pests see bulletins of experiment 
stations. 

Blights, Rusts, Scab, Etc 

Of the many fungous pests injuring the apple, the scab, 
a dark olive growth on the surface of the fruit, is the most 
destructive. This growth comes upon the leaves and 
fruit at any time from May to October, when we have 
much moist, cool weather. It is destroyed by the Bor- 
deaux mixture. The two sprayings for the codling moth 
early in the season will prevent the growth of the scab, 
after which we must spray about the last of July and the 
last of August. When the weather is wet at picking time 
it is sometimes necessary to spray just before picking to 
prevent the growth of the scab in the barrels. 

Dwarf Apples. 

Some twenty-five or thirty years ago much interest was 
manifested in Dwarf Apples. Everybody was going to 
plant their front yards, back yards, and all the waste 
places about their homes, and have apples for home use 
and for sale. These trees were grafted upon a slow- 
growing stock called Doucin and Paradise. 

Many trees were sold by nurserymen and planted in 



Fruit Growing 



155 



the home gardens, where they thrived for a time, but 
owing to the care they required and their failure to give 
the results promised, interest soon died out and in ten or 
fifteen years hardly a dwarf apple tree 
could be found. Within the past three 
or four years the interest in dwarf 
apple trees has been revived but that 
these will prove of any permanent value 
will require at least a decade to decide. 
If in the small yards of our city and 
suburban homes dwarf trees should 
continue to grow for a few years and 
produce a fair amount of fruit, they will be of much 
value; but we can hardly expect them to compete 
with standard trees for the production of fruit for com- 
mercial purposes. 




Fig. 56 — A Con- 
venient and Cheap 
Ladder for Work- 
ing on Low Trees. 



CHAPTER VIII 



The Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Plums, 
Apricots and Nectarines 

The Pear. 

WHILE the pear is not as extensively grown 
as the apple, there is a large demand for 
choice fruit and when well grown it is a 
paying crop. 

It thrives best in a deep rich loam, though it succeeds 
well in a clay soil if well underdrained. Like the apple, 
the fruit is of better color and quality, and the trees are 
less injured by insects and fungous pests, if planted on 
high elevations in full exposure to sunlight and air. 
Pear trees are more subject to injury from insects and 
fungous pests than the apple, and for this reason, per- 
haps, we do not often see old pear trees, or orchards from 
fifty to one hundred years old, as we do of the apple. 
Being smaller in size than the apple it is, however, more 
easily sprayed and pruned and with good care ought to 
last longer. 

Kinds of Trees; Preparing for Planting. 

No. I trees two years old are best for planting and 
they are prepared and planted in the same manner as 
the apple (see page 137). The after care, cultivation, 
fertilizing and pruning are also practically the same, ex- 
cept that in pruning the leading centre shoots of young 
trees must be cut back more severely to force an early 
low branching and fruiting. Much growth of wood will 

156 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. i ^7 

be saved if the shoots are pinched off in the summer than 
if they are allowed to grow and then cut off. 

Pear trees are planted from twenty to twenty-five feet 
apart, according to the variety for standards, and twelve 
to fifteen feet for dwarfs, though if the latter are set 
below the point where grafted or budded roots are formed 
from the pear stock the tree becomes a standard 
and will need the wider space first mentioned. Dwarf 
trees are sometimes very satisfactory if planted on very 
heavy soil, as the quince root upon which they are 
grafted grows best in such soil. Some varieties succeed 
better upon the quince stock than others, and only those 
that do well on this stock should be planted as dwarfs. 

Renovating Old Trees. 

The majority of pear trees in the older sections of the 
United States are very much in the condition of the apple 
trees — neglected, unpruned, and unsprayed, and produc- 
ing fruit that hardly pays for harvesting. To put them 
into condition to produce fruit that will bring a fair 
price in the markets, we must first reduce the amount 
of old wood which is covered with fruit buds just as we 
would with the currant or gooseberry bushes, and by 
fertilization, mulching, or cultivation induce some 
strong, vigorous growth that will produce large and fair 
fruit. This is done in the same manner as described for 
the apple. Pear trees may be regrafted to desirable 
varieties and produce fruit more quickly than the re- 
grafted apple tree. 

Varieties. 

The number of varieties of pears of commercial value 
is much less than that of the apple, but fewer kinds are 
generally planted. Those recommended and most gen- 
erally grown are: 



158 The Small Country Place 

Summer. — Bartlett, Clapp, Giffard, Petite Margaret. 
Autumn. — Seckel, Sheldon, Bosc, Kieffer (for canning 
only) . 

Winter. — Hovey, Lawrence, Anjou. 

Harvesting the Fruit. 

To be of the best quality, pears should be picked as 
soon as fully grown but while still hard. The right con- 
dition for picking is indicated by a slight change in color. 
The mellowing of the wormy specimens on the trees 
may indicate the time for picking. It is best, how- 
ever, to pick only the large, fully matured fruit at 
the first picking, and allow the small specimens to grow 
a few days; they will often double in size in a very 
short time and be of much better color and quality. 

Ripening the Fruit. 

Pears are of much better quality picked early than if 
allowed to ripen on the trees. To obtain the best color 
and quality, they must be put into a cool, close, dark 
place while hard. Placing in trays or shallow drawers, 
one layer deep, and covering with a Avoollen blanket 
will bring on a very bright color. Most standard varie- 
ties bring a much higher price if put into cold storage 
for a few weeks until the main supply in the market is 
exhausted. 

Packages for Pears. 

In most Eastern local markets pears are sold in bushel 
boxes without covers. For shipping to distant mar- 
kets they are packed in barrels, as apples are shipped. 
Some growers use a half-barrel cask rather large in 
diameter, but if a cushion is placed on the bottom and 
top of the bushel box hard fruit will ship as well in this 
package as in the barrel. In most places the grower 
must ship in the package demanded by the dealers. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 159 

Insects Injurious to the Pear. 

There are but two insects generally seriously injurious 
to the pear, the San Jose scale and the pear psylla. The 
former of these pests are destroyed by spraying with 
the lime and sulphur mixture which the reader will find 
described in the bulletins of the state experiment sta- 
tions. Its presence upon the trees is not noticeable 
except upon close examination. The leaves when at- 
tacked are small, weak, light in color, and leaves and 
twigs are covered with minute circular specks. These 
specks soon become very numerous and when they are 
scraped off with the back of a knife-blade slight exuda- 
tions of a yellowish substance are seen. If one finds an 
unusual covering upon the twigs, leaves or fruit, he 
should send specimens at once to the local experiment 
station, and follow directions as to their destruction, for 
it takes but a year or two for them to spread over whole 
orchards and ruin the trees. 

The pear-tree psylla is a minute brown aphis-like in- 
sect that flies about the trees in early spring and lays its 
eggs on the leaves and tender twigs. From the eggs 
comes a small flattened aphis that feeds on the juices 
of the tender tissues. Each one of these insects feeds 
in a little pool of juice that is sweetish to the taste, 
and wasps, flies, and hornets appear in large numbers 
either to feed upon the insects or upon this sweet liquid. 
The presence of the aphis may be known by the large 
number of these attendants. After the insects have 
worked a while the leaves, twigs and fruit are covered 
with dirt-like masses, where the dust of the atmosphere 
has adhered to the sticky exudations of the insects. 
This pest has not been controlled satisfactorily in the 
past, but it is claimed that the lime and sulphur mixture 
used for the San Jose scale will destroy these also. If 



l6o The Small Country Place 

this should prove to be the case, pear growing in some 
sections may again become a profitable industry. 

The decline in the business of fruit growing during the 
past few years has been due largely to the poor quality of 
the fruit put upon the market. We often hear of choice 
pears selling for from $2 to $4 per bushel, and choice 
fruit can be grown, though at an increased expense on 
account of insects and fungous pests. The more good 
fruit there is put into a market the larger will be the 
demand, and in the end with better prices, Avhile poor 
fruit will drive the consumers to buy other kinds. It is 
therefore "up to" us, the growers, to produce fruit of 
choice quality, using economically all known means of 
protecting our crops from insects and disease. 

Fungous Pests. 

Insects are not, however, the worst obstacles of suc- 
cessful pear growing. Two diseases, known as "leaf 
blight" and "fire blight," are even more destructive. In 
many sections, especially where the trees are in sheltered, 
frosty locations, the pear trees are attacked by the leaf 
bhght. This is a fungous or spot disease that appears 
upon leaves in the middle of summer, often causing 
them to fall. When this occurs in July or early August 
new shoots and often blossoms start out late in the 
season. This growth is weak and will not withstand the 
winter, making the tree more liable to the attack of fire 
blight the following summer. When this fungus at- 
tacks the fruit, it becomes hard and woody and cracks 
open. A remedy for this disease is the Bordeaux mix- 
ture, spraying just before the leaves open, just after the 
petals have fallen, and twice after at intervals of two or 
three weeks. Trees that are growing vigorously are less 
liable to this or any other disease than weak trees. A 
very rank, soft growth of wood, however, may be injured 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. i6l 

by cold, and the next season be more liable to disease 
than if the growth were slower and yet vigorous. 

The fire blight is a bacterial disease, closely related to 
small-pox and diphtheria in the human system. In 
extremely hot and moist weather the spores (germs) of 
this disease, finding their way into the tissue of the trees 
through the blossoms or soft new growth, grow in the 
cells so rapidly that in a few days large branches or even 
whole trees may be killed. The first appearance is a 
wilting of the branches and leaves; then they turn 
brown, and finally black. The remedy is first to cut 
away all diseased branches as soon as they are attacked, 
then produce a healthful growth by cultivation, mulch- 
ing, or the use of fertilizers containing a large percentage 
of potash. The spraying done for the leaf blight will no 
doubt have a beneficial effect against this disease, as 
will probably the lime-sulphur mixture used for the San 
Jose scale. No outside application, however, will de- 
stroy this or any other disease of our fruits after the 
spores or germs have gained entrance into the tissues. 

Much may be done to keep our pear and other fruit 
trees from being injured by insects and fungous pests 
by so fertilizing, cultivating, and spraying as to keep 
the trees in a vigorous, healthy growth. A liberal use 
of fertilizers containing a large percentage of potash 
and phosphoric acid, or simply wood ashes, lime, and a 
little sulphate of potash, will tend to a hard, compact, 
well-matured wood that will withstand blight and pro- 
duce a foliage that will be resistant to leaf blight and 
to insects. 

The Peach. 

In many sections of the United States from Georgia 
to Canada the peach may be profitably grown when the 
soil and exposure is right. From New York City south 
along the coast and along the east shore of Lake Michi- 



l62 



The Small Country Place 




Fig. 57 — A Three-Year-Old Peach Orchard 
in Sunimer Growth. 



gan, where the temperature does not run much below 
zero and shows httle variation during the winter, the 
peach may be grown upon almost any elevation or ex- 
posure; but in the 
interior and at the 
North they must be 
planted on elevated 
land with full expos- 
ure that will cause 
firm, well - matured 
wood, and where the 
temperature does not 
run as low as in the 
valleys. The peach 
succeeds best in a 
rather thin soil, but 
it must be made rich enough in organic matter by 
plowing under green crops or by other means to pro- 
duce a good growth of wood. For the best results the 
land should be fitted by deep plowing and harrowing. 

Trees and Their Preparation. 

Northern-grown trees are generally selected for plant- 
ing in northern sections, but if well matured it matters 
little whether they are grown North or South, though 
the nearer they are grown to the section where planted 
the better. Trees of medium or small size are selected, 
as they generally have more dormant lateral buds than 
those of larger size. As a rule the No. 2 trees in any lot 
are those of a weaker growth and will make smaller 
trees; therefore it would be better to buy from a lot 
where all have made a rather small growth and select 
the best of these, 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 



163 



Pruning for Planting. 

Most large growers of the peach trim the young trees, 
before planting, back to a single cane "whipstock," 
cutting the end back to from two to three feet long, 
allowing the head of the 
tree to be formed upon 
this single cane. Others 
cut the tree down to 
within two or three inches 
of the bud and allow only 
one bud to grow thus near 
the ground, upon which 
lateral branches are 
formed at regular inter- 
vals from one to two feet 
from the ground. The 
latter method will pro- 
duce the best tree in 
shape, but it will require more attention until the 
head is pretty well established. During the early sum- 
mer, until the head is well formed, the young trees must 
have constant attention, pinching back or rubbing off 
all shoots not desired to form a perfect head. The aim 
should be to produce a regularly formed head with a 
leader in the center. Fig. 57 shows a peach orchard 
in Massachusetts three years old. 




Fig. 58 — A Peach Tree Unpruned for 
Four Years. 



After Pruning. 

At the end of the first season's growth we should have 
a conical formed tree with three or four main branches 
starting at from one to three feet from the ground. 
Before growth begins the second year the strongest of 
these should be cut back from one-half or two-thirds 
their length, to give perfect form, and cutting out here 



164 



The Small Country Place 



and there small shoots that tend to make the head too 
close. A low, compact tree that will carry a large crop of 
fruit should be the aim, and during the summer such 




Fig. 59 — A Four-Year-Old Peach Tree Before Pruning. 




■^-^^^- 



FiG. 60 — A Four-Year-Old Peach Tree After Pruning. 

branches as tend to outgrow their neighbors must be 
pinched off. Fig. 58 shows a tree unpruned for four 
years; Fig. 59, a tree before pruning; Fig. 60 a tree 
pruned. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 165 

By frequent attention fruit trees of all kinds may be 
kept in perfect condition for many years by the use of 
the pocket-knife and thumb and fingers. As the trees 
grow old the lateral branches tend to become weak, 
and either die or are cut away unless the tops are heav- 
ily pruned; and in northern sections, where the fruit 
buds are winter-killed, as they frequently are, this non- 
bearing year in old orchards is taken advantage of and 
the tops are cut back severeh^ thus forcing growth into 
the lower branches and practically renewing the trees. 
The cutting of large branches should be done with a 
saw and never with an axe or the heavy lever shears. 
All wounds more than an inch in diameter should be 
painted with linseed-oil paint to prevent decay. 

Peach trees are not long lived. Under especialh^ 
favorable conditions an orchard will last from twelve to 
fifteen years, and individual trees sometimes reach forty 
to fifty years of age. At the North, three crops in five 
years are expected on the average, though sometimes 
three or four consecutive crops may be obtained, while 
on the other hand the buds may be destroyed by cold as 
many consecutive years. 

The crop, too, varies much in quantity and quality, 
according to the season. In a bright, warm summer, or 
where the trees are on a warm, sunny, but high eleva- 
tion, the fruit will be of much better quality than in a 
cold, wet season or cool, moist soil and north or east 
exposure. 

Gathering and Marketing the Fruit. 

To be of the best quality, peaches must be ripened 
upon the trees, becoming almost mellow before picking. 
The stage of ripeness at which they should be picked 
can only be determined by the eye. When the fruit is 
fully grown and the green color has been replaced by a 



i66 The Small Country Place 

delicate shade of pink, white or yellow, and when the 
ridge along the suture seems soft and springy, it is ready 
to pick for the local market. For home use they may 
become mellow before picking, but for a distant market 
they must be decidedly hard but fully grown before 
picking. 

Packages and Marketing. 

In almost every large peach-growing section some 
distinctive package is used. Thus in the Lake Shore 
region of Michigan a cheap bushel basket is used; in 
California, Georgia, and other Southern States, a six- 
basket carrier is used, each basket holding about four 
quarts; while through Maryland, Delaware, New Jer- 
sey, Connecticut and the Northeast the fourteen to six- 
teen-quart basket is used. The first and last of these 
packages are, to say the least, inconvenient, but they are 
cheap; the carrier is expensive, but carries the fruit in 
a much superior condition to the others mentioned. 

Varieties. 
New varieties of peaches, as of almost every other 
kind of fruit, are offered every year, and much money is 
expended upon them, yet few of these prove of greater 
value than the old standard sorts and each grower 
should consult the markets and the varieties he and other 
growers have tried before planting largely of any one 
kind. Different varieties, too, will vary much in differ- 
ent seasons, as well as in different soils and exposure, yet 
there are those that do well under a great variety of 
conditions and the latter should be most largely planted 
unless found to fail under the local conditions under 
which they must be planted. Among those that have 
generally proved valuable may be mentioned Champion, 
Mountain Rose, Old Mixon, Crawford's Early, Craw- 
ford's Late, Elberta, and Fitzgerald. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 167 

Insects Injuring the Peach. 

Only two insects are seriously injurious to the peach, 
the peach borer and the San Jose scale. The first is, in 
its fully developed stage, a small wasp-like moth with 
transparent wings. It lays its egg on the trunk near the 
ground and its young, the larvae or borers, feed upon the 
inner bark and sapwood, but not penetrating deeply 
into the wood as does the apple borer and many of its 
class. 

Its presence may be known by masses of gum near the 
ground that come out from the injured places. If the 
borer is present there will be fresh chips mixed with the 
gum. This gum is drawn away, a little of the bark cut 
off, and the fat white larva is easily found and de- 
stroyed. The best time to look for these borers is in 
May and September. Placing sheet tin or fine wire 
netting about the trunk of the tree is of some benefit but 
is more expensive and not as effectual as the knife. 
After the borer has been destroyed, it is well to press 
the soil well in place over the injured parts. 

The San Jose scale is a less conspicuous and far more 
destructive pest. It is a small scale-like insect, so small 
that an individual scale is scarcely distinguishable by 
the naked eye, but it becomes so numerous that the 
trunks and branches appear to be covered with scale- 
like deposits. When this crust of scale is scraped off 
with the knife many bodies are crushed and a mass of 
yellow liquid is seen. This pest begins to hatch its young 
as soon as the weather has become warm and settled; 
a single pair and its progeny may produce millions of 
young in a season. See experiment station bulletins 
for method of destruction. 



i68 The Small Country Place 

Fungous Pests. 

The "peach curl" is a fungous disease that attacks 
the leaves of peaches and the fruit of native plums, 
causing the tissues to swell to large, light yellow masses 
and finally drop off. It does not kill the tree, and soon 
new leaves come out, but two or three seasons' attacks 
are sufficient to so weaken the trees that they become 
an easy prey to peach yellows and leaf spot. 

The "peach yellows," a disease as to the nature of 
which little is known, is by far the most destructive pest. 
The leaves when attacked have a light green or reddish 
color, and the shoots are small and wiry. The fruit is 
small, ripens prematurely, is of most brilliant color, and 
often has a decidedly bitter taste. The disease is 
thought to be contagious, spreading from one part of an 
orchard to other parts, and from one orchard to another, 
but this apparent contagion may be explained on the 
theory that the soil and climatic conditions being the 
same, all the trees would be likely to present the same 
conditions of growth that might result from extreme 
heat or cold, or too much or too little inoisture. Trees 
attacked by this disease seldom recover wholly, though 
by severe pruning back, and the liberal use of fertilizers 
containing a large amount of potash, they may live 
many years and produce much good fruit. The cost of 
this work and the small cost of growing young trees up 
to bearing size make it more profitable to cut out all 
trees as soon as they are badly affected and replace 
them with young trees. The lime and sulphur remedy 
used for the destruction of the San Jose scale has a 
decidedly beneficial effect upon the leaf curl and reduces 
the danger of injury from the yellows, though it is not a 
sure remedy for the latter. As with the pear, much of 
success in growing peaches depends upon the condition 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 



169 



of the soil, the cultivation given, and the amount and 
kind of fertilizers used. Upon fairly good soil little or 
no fertilizer need be used until the trees begin to bear, 
if the land is deeply plowed at planting and frequently 
cultivated, especially during dry weather. Fertilizers 
containing a large amount of potash and phosphoric acid 
will tend to produce hard, early ripened wood that will 
withstand cold and extreme dry or wet weather. 

The Quince. 

With large supplies of more delicate fruit from all 
sections of the world, the demand for the quince has not 



«%. 



i^'^ 



'WmmB&iM, 






'i^mMA^. 



Fig. 61 — Pear and Quince Trees and Blackberries in the Poultry Yard. 

increased as it has for the other large fruits. It is a 
fruit that is not consumed uncooked and few families 
use more than a peck or half bushel for canning or mak- 
ing preserves, or flavoring apple or other sauces; yet, 
the supply is not greater than the demand, and many 
growers find it a paying crop. 



lyo The Small Country Place 

For the best results a deep, strong, rich soil is neces- 
sary. The best quince trees to be found in our average 
gardens are those growing near the overflow of the sink- 
drain, or cesspool, where the soil is very rich, or in 
poultry yards (Fig. 6i); and if one expects to make 
quince growing profitable conditions somewhat similar 
to the above must be provided. The fruit often sells 
at from fifty cents to one dollar per peck, or three to 
five dollars per barrel, and a single tree will sometimes 
yield from two to five bushels, so that the income from 
the crop will warrant the rather large investment re- 
quired to produce good fruit. 

Selection of Trees. 

Strong two-year-old trees, grown from cuttings or 
grafts upon apple roots, should be selected. The tops 
and roots should be pruned before planting in the man- 
ner directed for the apple and pear. Quince roots are 
fine and fibrous, and much care is needed in working fine, 
rich soil in about them before it is pressed into place. 
The after-pruning and care is about the same as for the 
apple and pear, but generally frequent cultivation w411 
give better results than with trees in turf. 

Form of the Trees. 

The quince is trained in the tree and in the bush form. 
The first has the advantage that cultivation can be 
carried on closer to the trunk, and that borers can be 
more easily dug from a single trunk than where several 
trunks are crowded together; while in the bush form, 
if one trunk is injured others may keep on growing and 
the tree continue to produce fruit, yet if the single 
trunk is seriously injured the whole tree is destroyed. 

For those who are not skilful in the work of training 
trees, or who have no time for the work, the bush form 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 171 

will be best, as it is the most natural and requires the 
least attention. Quince trees may be set about 10x10 
feet each way, and the heads kept in a round, compact 
form, heading in the strong shoots that tend to outgrow 
the limits of this space and thinning out the old wood, 
allowing the young and vigorous wood full chance for 
development. A vigorous growth of tree must be kept 
up in order to produce fine, well-colored fruit. At 
from three to five years in good soil the quince should 
begin to bear and should yield fruit more or less every 
year. The trees are long lived under favorable condi- 
tions, but with the **no care" method mostly in practice 
they live but a short time. 

Varieties. 
There are fewer varieties of the quince than of any of 
our other large fruits, the Orange, Rea's and Champion 
being the kinds generally grown. Of these the Orange is 
most grown but varies much under different kinds of 
soil and exposure. Rea's is larger than the average 
Orange quince, comes into bearing earlier, and is more 
highly colored. The Champion is the latest of the three 
in ripening, and often fails to take on the brilliant color 
which is so desirable in this fruit. 

Marketing the Quince. 
For the local trade this fruit is sold by the half peck 
and peck, sometimes packed in neat, handled baskets. 
For distant shipment they are put up in barrels, half 
barrels, or in covered baskets similar to those in which 
grapes are shipped to eastern markets; but no matter 
what the package, when closely packed they come out 
badly bruised and marked and do not look attractive or 
keep well. For the retail trade they may be taken from 
the loose package and delivered unbruised and attrac- 
tive, and will keep a long time. 



lyi The Small Country Place 

Insects and Diseases. 

The same insects that attack the apple and pear also 
injure the quince, and the remedies are the same. The 
round-headed apple-tree borer is especially fond of the 
quince and frequent examinations should be made for 
them. 

Of the diseases that attack the quince, the fire blight 
described under the Pear (page 1 6 1 ) is often very destruc- 
tive to the ends of the branches but seldom destroys the 
entire tree, as it often does with the pear. As soon as it 
appears all shoots attacked should be cut away and 
burned. The cedar-apple fungus often attacks the 
young fruit and the ends of the branches or stems soon 
after blooming, stopping growth and causing the fruit to 
become hard and woody. The leaf blight, a spot fungus, 
often causes the leaves to fall in the late summer, thus 
materially checking the growth of the tree and prevent- 
ing the formation of well matured wood for the next 
year. A remedy for these two diseases, and perhaps a 
preventive of the fire blight, is the Bordeaux mixture, 
applied just before the blossom buds open and again as 
soon as the petals fall. If the lime and sulphur wash 
was applied in April for the San Jose scale, only the 
second application of the Bordeaux mixture need be 
made. 

The Plum. 

Three groups of plums are now grown more or less in 
our gardens and orchards, the European, the Japanese, 
and the American. The first of these has been grown 
the longest, is represented by the common blue 
plums, the Lombard, Damson, etc., and under favorable 
conditions is the most profitable, though most subject to 
injury from insects and fungous pests, and is often in- 
jured by severe cold weather. This kind of plum lives 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 173 

longer than the Japanese when well cared for. Fig. 62 
shows trees more than thirty years old, that bear large 
crops of fruit every other year, few varieties bearing 
every year. For success a strong, moist, but well-under- 
drained soil, situated where the water and cold will 
drain off and abate quickly, is essential. The trees 
should be planted where there is full exposure to the 
north and west, yet with a good circulation of air and 
sunlight about them. 




Fig. 62— Plum Trees Over Thirty Years Old. 

Strong, one-year-old trees budded upon the myroba- 
lan stock or native stock should be selected. They are 
pruned and prepared for planting in the same manner 
as the apple, the top, however, being cut to a clean whip- 
stock from three to four feet high. Clean and frequent 
cultivation should be given, and a little fertilizer con- 
taining a large percentage of potash and phosphoric acid 
if they are not making satisfactory growth. 

The planting and summer care are practically the same 
as for the apple and peach. The trees, however, will 
need more heading in to make the lower branches grow. 



174 ^^^ Small Country Place 

As the trees grow older, thinning out of the old wood 
will be needed to encourage young and vigorous shoots, 
which are necessary for the production of large and fine 
fruit. 

In quality the fruit of the best varieties of this group 
is much superior to that of the Japanese or American 
varieties, and when well grown sells readily at good 
prices. Many insects and fungous diseases attack the 
European plums, and constant attention needs to be 
given them to save the fruit and the tree from serious 
injury. 

Insects. 

The tree is attacked by the peach borer, which was 
described under the Peach (page 167), and the plum cur- 
culio often causes all of the fruit to fall before it is ripe. 
This pest attacks the fruit, making a crescent-shaped 
cut in the skin, laying an egg in each cut. The larva 
works its way into the fruit and feeds until it is about 
three-eighths of an inch in length, causing the fruit to 
fall, when it enters the ground and makes a cocoon of 
soil, from which it emerges the next season. Two 
methods are employed to destroy this pest: first, by 
spreading a sheet under the branches and giving the 
branches a sudden jarring by striking with a padded 
mallet or hammer, when the insects will loose their hold 
and fall to the sheet. In the cool of the morning they are 
so dormant that they will remain on the sheet until 
brushed or shaken into a pail or put into the stove, 
but in the middle of the day they will often fly into the 
air after a few moments of feigning death. Where a 
large number of trees are grown the sheet is mounted 
upon a frame like an inverted umbrella on wheels, 
which can be quickly moved from tree to tree and the 
insects brushed into a basin in the centre of the frame. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 175 

Jarring must be kept up every day or every other day 
for about two weeks from, the time the plums are the 
size of a small pea. 

Another method which has proved effectual in large 
orchards is spraying with the Bordeaux mixture and 
Paris green, as described for the codling moth (page 153), 
just before the flowers open, after the petals have fallen, 
and twice after, at intervals of a week or ten days. 
When all orchard trees are sprayed as above, most of 
these insects are destroyed or driven away. When all 
the orchards of a neighborhood are occupied by large 
numbers of poultry, nearly all insects like the above are 
sure to be destroyed, but where only a few trees are 
enclosed in a yard the insects will come in from the 
outside. 

Fungous Diseases. 

The "black knot," leaf blight, and monilia or brown 
fruit-rot are three very troublesome pests. The black 
knot is a fungus that grows upon the branches, causing 
unsightly black excrescences or warts. It often appears 
in such numbers as to kill entire trees. To destroy this 
pest the knots should be cut off as soon as they appear, 
cutting off small branches affected or paring off the wart 
when on the trunk or main branches. Painting the wart 
with thick linseed-oil paint in which a little kerosene has 
been mixed will also help to stop its progress. On se- 
verely infested trees the whole head may be cut off, 
leaving only short stubs, when a new growth of shoots 
will come out and renew the tree. The spraying recom- 
mended for the plum curculio will reduce the number 
very materially, though all of the trees in a neighbor- 
hood must be sprayed, or the spores of the fungus will 
be carried from the unsprayed trees to those that have 
been sprayed. 



176 The Small Country Place 

The monilia is a fungus that attacks the fruit as it 
approaches maturity, causing it to rot, and when fully 
developed covers the decayed fruit with light gray or 
white dust-like spores. These spores are carried long 
distances by the wind, and are ready to grow wherever 
the proper conditions are found — i.e., any of the stem 
fruits with moisture upon the surface. Planting the 
trees where they will have full exposure to sunlight and 
air, a loose, open head, and thinning the fruit so that no 
two plums will touch are preventive measures. Spray- 
ing with the Bordeaux mixture will in a measure con- 
trol this disease. 

\ The leaf blight or shot-hole fungus often attacks the 
plums, causing the leaves and fruit to fall in the sum- 
mer, and consequently a poor growth of tree that is 
liable to injury during the winter. 

Varieties. 

While long lists of plums are given in catalogues of 
nurserymen, there are but few that are desirable or 
satisfactory. The following list includes those that 
generally succeed under a variety of conditions, viz.: 
Bradshaw, Lombard, Lincoln, Arctic, Quackenbass, 
Fellemburg, Reine Claude, Washington, Green Gage, 
Imperial Gage and Damson (a small blue plum valuable 
for canning). 

Marketing Plums. 

Plums for the local market are sold in the common 
quart strawberry basket, or by the half peck and peck. 
For shipping they are packed in small crates or in the 
common grape basket. It is a fruit that keeps but a 
short time, especially in moist weather, and should be 
picked when dry and put in a dry, cool place for keeping. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 177 

The Japanese Plum. 

Within the past ten or fifteen years the Japanese 
plum has been largely planted and is a very desirable 
addition to our list of fruits. It is rapid in growth, 
comes into bearing young (from three to five years after 
planting), the fruit is attractive and of fair quality. It, 
however, is not quite hardy; the fruit buds are often 
killed by cold, and the trees are short lived. This is 
not a very serious objection, as young trees can be very 
quickly and cheaply grown to fruiting size and the fruit 
is better from young trees than from those of older 
growth. It is propagated by budding upon the peach 
and plum stocks, the former being most generally used. 
It succeeds best upon thin soil but should be in full ex- 
posure to sunlight and air. One-year-old trees are best 
for planting, and are prepared for setting in the same 
manner as the peach. They should be trained low, some 
varieties requiring frequent heading in to keep them in 
a close, compact form. 

For insects and fungous pests the trees should be 
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture in full strength 
before the leaves open, as this would not injure them. 
After the leaves have unfolded the Bordeaux must be 
diluted at least one-half and arsenate of lead used in 
place of Paris green. The same insects and fungous pests 
attack this species as are injurious to the European 
plum and the remedies are the same with the above 
modifications. 

To obtain fruit of large size and good quality it must 
be thinned before it is half grown, all specimens bearing 
the curculio's crescent-shaped mark be picked off and 
no two plums be allowed to touch each other. Varie- 
ties of this species are rapidly increasing and much im- 
provement in quality of fruit and hardiness of tree is to 



178 The Small Country Place 

be hoped for from some of the new introductions. At 
the present time the varieties that will give the best 
results under ordinary average conditions are probably 
the Abundance, Burbank, and Wickson. with Climax 
and October Purple as promising new varieties. 

A merican Plu ms . 

Varieties of the American plum may be found growing 
wild from Canada to Texas. Some are of good size and 
fair quality, and much attention is being given to cross- 
ing them with the European and Japanese varieties in 
the hope of obtaining fruit of better quality and larger 
size. 

Being perfectly hardy and comparatively free from 
insect and fungous attack, they offer great promise, and 
with the size and quality of the Japanese and European 
varieties would be more valuable than either of the latter. 

The better varieties now known have some market 
value, particularly where the above species are not 
grown, being especially valuable for preserving, many 
considering them equal to the Damson for this purpose; 
and when fully ripe they are palatable uncooked. The 
trees grow best in a rather moist soil, but will do well in 
almost any garden soil. Among the best varieties for 
cultivation are the Wild Goose, Weaver, Hawkeye, Way- 
land, Moreman, and Reed. 

The only insect seriously injurious to this group of 
plums is the peach borer (for description and remedy see 
page 167). The only fungous pest of any importance is 
the leaf curl, which sometimes attacks the fruit as well 
as the leaves, causing it to puff up and soon drop off. 
This pest is controlled by the diluted Bordeaux mix- 
ture (4 copper sulphate, 6 lime and 100 gallons of 
water), and by the lime and sulphur wash when applied 
for the San Jose scale. 



Pears, Peaches, Ouinces, Etc. 



179 



The Apricot. 

The Apricot tree grows vigorously and often of large 
size from Canada to Texas, but is very short lived, often 
dying in the midst of the full summer's growth or being 
frequently killed by severe winter weather. The fruit 
buds are rather more tender than those of the peach and 
no varieties oi equal quality to the peach w^ill grow at 
the North. Varieties of the European, Russian and Jap- 



. '.,# 




Fig. 63 — Currant Bushes Under Plum and Apricot Trees. 

anese apricots resemble each other very closely but 
none of them have much commercial value. The trees 
are budded upon the peach and seedling apricot stocks, 
and require about the same treatment as the plum in the 
preparation of the tree for planting and after care. The 
insect and fungous pests are the same as those attack- 
ing the plum, and require the same treatment. Among 
the leading European varieties are the Early Montgamet 
and Moore Park. Fig. 63 shows apricot and plum 
trees with currant bushes growing between them. 



i8o The Small Country Place 

The fruit is marketed in the same manner as the plum, 
most of it, however, being used for canning, as very few 
kinds mature so as to be equal to the plum or peach in 
quality. Numerous hybrids between the above three 
species have been produced, some of which are of much 
promise, and if more hardiness of tree and better 
quahty of fruit could be produced would be a great 

acquisition. 

The Nectarine. 

This fruit may be called a smooth-skinned peach, for 
the tree can hardly be distinguished from the peach tree, 
but there is no down or woolly covering on the skin of the 
fruit as on the peach. The tree is as hardy as the peach 
tree, but the fruit buds are more frequently winter- 
killed. The nectarine requires the same treatment as the 
peach in every way, but as the skin of the fruit is smooth 
more attention must be given to protection from the 
plum curculio. 

The Downton and Boston are among the best varieties. 

The Cherrv. 

This is our most difficult fruit to grow in nearly all 
sections of the country with the exception, perhaps, of 
Cahfornia and the Pacific Coast. 

As with all of the stone fruits, more or less, the trees 
are easily injured by severe cold, growing well for a few 
years while young and then dying. The only places 
where we find trees of large size are in grass along the 
roadsides or on the lawns, and even here old trees often 
die without apparent cause in a single winter. 

The best land for cherries is a rather thin, poor soil, 
with quick drainage; but it must be made rich enough 
to produce a good growth, if not already in that condi- 
tion, by the appUcation of stable manure in the fall 
before the ground freezes. 



Pears, Peaches, Quinces, Etc. 181 

Little or no pruning is needed except to head in those 
branches that grow so as to give the trees an irregular 
shape. One- or two-year-old trees are best for planting, 
the pruning needed before planting being the same as 
for the apple and pear. The spring is the best time for 
planting, though if planted early in the fall they will 
succeed fairly well. 

Varieties. 

Two groups of cherries are grown, the sour or cooking 
cherries and the sweet for table use. 

The former are more hardy and productive, and most 
easily grown. Of the sour cherries, the Early Richmond 
and Montmorencey are generally grown, while of the 
sweet kinds the Governor Wood, Black Tartarian, and 
Windsor are perhaps the best. 

Marketing the Fruit. 

Most of the fruit grown in the Eastern States is mar- 
keted in quart strawberry baskets packed in 3 2 -quart or 
bushel crates, though where grown for canning they are 
sold in larger market baskets. 

Insect and Fungous Pests. 

The insects most destructive to the cherry are the 
black aphis or plant louse, the plum curculio, and the 
peach borer. The former is black in color and causes 
the leaves to curl up and often drop oif after a time. 
The remedy is to pick off and destroy the curled leaves 
when they first appear. The remedy for the other two 
insect pests has been described under the Plum and 
Peach. The black knot is destroyed as described under 
the Plum. 



CHAPTER IX 



The Grape 



MANY species of the grape grow wild from 
Canada to Texas, and it is more or less 
cultivated in garden and vineyard through- 
out this territory. As a home fruit, trained upon the 
garden trellis or upon walls and the sides of buildings, 
there are few homes where the grape may not be grown 
with more or less success; but for commercial pur- 
poses, it is only extensively cultivated in sections especi- 
ally adapted to its growth. In the New England 
States we find only here and there vineyards of small 
extent, but as we go west the Hudson River and Lake 
Shore vineyards assume large proportions, those of New 
York, Ohio, Michigan, etc., being the largest grape- 
growing regions in the world. The grape is grown to a 
limited extent in the Middle and Southern States, and 
to a larger extent on the Pacific coast, where, owing to 
there being no rain during the ripening season, the fruit 
can be grown upon self-supporting short trunks. At 
the East varieties or hybrids of the Fox, Pigeon and 
Summer grapes are most grown, while South and on the 
Pacific coast the European variety and its hybrids, with 
many American species, are more largely grown. 

The conditions most favorable for the grape are a 
rather light soil, well underdrained, in full exposure to 
sunlight and air, and on the south slope of high hills, 
especially at the North, safe from late frosts in the 
spring and early frosts in the fall; or on the borders 
of large sheets of water, where frosts are prevented by 

182 



The Grape 



183 



the warm air arising from the water. On the hilltops 
of New England, and similarly on the lake shores of 
New York, Ohio and Michigan, frosts do not generally 
do harm until after the first of October, at which time 
the crop is usually ripe enough to pick. 

Propagation of the Grape. 

The grape vine is readily propagated by the amateur, 
by cutting, by layers, and to some extent by grafting. 




Fig. 64 — A Small Vineyard. 

Cuttings are short pieces of canes of the last season's 
growth, six to eight inches long, cut w4th a sharp knife 
square across the base at a bud, and at the end from 
one-half to an inch from the bud. The best time for 
making grape cuttings is in the fall soon after the 
leaves have fallen and up to the time the ground freezes, 
but they may be made in the winter when the canes are 
not frozen. They may be planted in the fall as soon as 
made, or tied in bundles of twenty-five and heeled in 



184 The Small Country Place 

with .moist soil closely packed against all parts. They 
may also be kept in moist sawdust upon ice. They are 
planted in rows any desired distance apart, the cuttings 
being about two inches apart in the row, the soil pressed 
very closely about the base, and the end bud a half inch 
below the surface. 

Layering is a very satisfactory method of increasing 
the vine. The spring layer consists in first digging a 
trench about six inches deep close up under the vines, 
where lateral canes can be bent into it. In this trench 
are placed canes of last season's growth, held in place by 
stones or forked sticks. When the buds along this cane 
have grown from four to six inches long, rich soil is 
packed firmly about them, when roots will start, and at 
the end of the season we will have as many well-rooted 
vines as there are shoots that grew on the cane laid 
down. Summer layers are made about July ist, by 
laying down canes of the present season's growth and 
covering with moist rich soil; at the end of the season 
we will have as many rooted vines as were canes laid 
down. Layered vines may be dug in the fall and planted, 
or left until spring, as may be most convenient. 

In the vineyard, vines are grown from six by eight to 
eight by ten feet apart, according to the variety and 
method of training. The best vines for vineyard growth 
are strong one-year-old No. i. These should have but 
one cane, cut back to two or three buds, and the roots 
shortened to about six inches. In planting, the roots 
are spread out over a cone or ridge of soil, or on the side 
of a trench, the base of, the cane being covered with 
only two or three inches of soil, but the roots running 
full depth into the soil. Press the soil firmly about the 
roots and place a stake at each one on the north side. 
The first year any hoed crops like beans, peas, potatoes, 
beets, carrots, etc., may be grown on the land, taking 



The Grape 187 

care that the one cane allowed to grow be not injured, 
but corn and small grains should not be grown among 
them. Only one cane should be allowed to grow, and 
this should be kept tied to the stake, all laterals being 
rubbed off as soon as started. At the end of the first 
year and the beginning of the second, this cane, if it 
has made growth enough, is cut off at about two and 
one-half feet from the ground or on the level with the 
first wire or other support of the trellis. If to be trained 





BWf^iiiiirt^M 




Fig. 66 — Single Grapevine Pruned and Fruiting; Cane IiclI iu Top Wire. 

to the sides of a building, this cane is encouraged to 
grow at the end by pinching back the laterals until it is 
carried to the desired height. In this way single vines 
may be made to extend over long arbors and verandas, 
or over the sides of large buildings, serving as an 
ornamental covering and at the same time producing 
large crops of fruit. (Fig. 65.) 

In the vineyard the vines are trained to trellises 
made of wire and posts, one, two or three wires 
being used, according to the method of training. In the 
very simple method shown in the picture (Fig. 66) the 
canes bearing the fruit are trained upon the upper 



88 



The Small Country Place 



wire, while the new cane that is to bear fruit the next 
season is trained to the lower wire. Chestnut, cedar, or 
catalpa posts are the most durable, and No. 12 or No. 14 
galvanized wire is used. The posts are about eight feet 
long, set three feet into the ground. The top w^ire is 
about five feet from the ground, the second one being 
placed about eighteen inches below it. The fruit is borne 
upon the top wire (Fig. 67) while one or more new canes 
are grown upon the lower wire, with which to replace 



~-^^; 




1 




Fig. 67 — A Sinele Vine with Fruit on the Top Wire. 



that above after the fruit is gathered. During the sum- 
mer growth of all canes but the new ones is to be checked 
by pinching, thus forcing all growth into the fruit and 
the new canes that are to bear fruit next year. The 
ends of the laterals on the upper canes that bear the 
fruit must be pinched off as soon as the last cluster of 
fruit buds appear, which is often the last of May or 
early June, and whenever new buds start on these 
laterals all but one leaf should be pinched off. There 
are many other systems of pruning and training prac- 
ticed by grape growers, but the above recommends 
itself as simple, requiring but little work; besides, the 



The Grape 



189 



fruit carried high upon the vine, is less Hable to rot 
or mildew, and is where it can be readily thinned and 
picked. 

Pruning the Vine. 

By the above method all the pruning required is the 
cutting off of the fruiting cane after the leaves have 
fallen, removing all laterals and small canes near the 







i .;.. i;,s U;up^iUi(_ ill LiarUcu I'upruned for Five Years. 

ground, and heading back the new canes to the proper 
length to cover the trellis, or other support. Either one 
or two canes may be used on the trellis; if two, one is 
trained each side of the centre of the vine. 

The time for pruning the vines may be from the fall- 
ing of the leaves in the fall to the starting of the buds in 
the spring, but the earlier it is done the better. If left 
until growth begins, the sap will often flow from the cut 
and possibly injure the vines. 

Neglected vines may be pruned somewhat after the 



190 



The Small Country Place 



above system, as shown in the accompanying picture 
(Fig. 68). Beginning at one end of the trelHs new canes 
are selected from near the centre of the vine, in sufficient 
numbers to cover the wires or rails, and all others are 
cut away until the vine appears as shown in Fig. 69. 
The vine in full foliage is shown in Fig. 70. 

Vines upon buildings are treated in a similar manner. 



f 






Fig. 69 — Grapevine in Garden After Pruning. 

One new cane only covers the space occupied by the mass 
of unformed canes often found upon such vines. 

Cultivation and Fertilization. 

There is no fruit that so well repays good care and an 
abundance of plant food as the grape, but there is more 
danger of over-feeding than with any other fruit crop. 
The vineyard should be kept cultivated enough to keep 
down all weeds, and in times of drouth often enough to 
keep a dust mulch upon the surface to retain what 



The Grape 



191 



moisture there may be in the soil. With the plow, the 
spring-tooth cultivator, and the grape horse-hoe, little 
or no hand labor need be done in cultivation. The 
grape horse -hoe enables one to draw the soil away from 
the vine or throw it up against it, leaving only a little 
space around each vine that must be hand-hoed, and is 
a great labor saver. 




Fig. 70 — Grapevine in Garden in September, in FviU Foliage and Fruit. 

Little or no nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied 
unless the soil is very poor. A very good fertilizer is 
made of equal parts of fine ground bone and sulphate of 
potash, using from 500 to 1000 pounds of this mixture 
per acre, according to the growth of vine and crop of 
fruit. For vines in the garden, if there is a wash of plant 
food from surroundings, or if fertilizers are applied to 
crops near by, no fertilizers need be used upon the 
vines. Poultry droppings and wood ashes make a good 
fertilizer for the grape, but if the vines are growing 
vigorously only the wood ashes should be used. 



192 The Small Country Place 

Varieties. 

Among the many varieties grown there are but few of 
much commercial importance — none, in fact, that are 
entirely hardy and free from disease under all condi- 
tions. There are, however, several that are largely 
grown. For New England the Worden, Concord, and 
Green Mountain are the most hardy. The Delaware, 
Brighton, and Campbell's Early will be of some value 
under favorable conditions. The Delaware is subject to 
mildew, and the Brighton does not fruit well unless near 
vines of other varieties the pollen from which will fer- 
tilize their flowers, which are not wholly self-fertile. To 
the above may be added for New York, Ohio, and the 
Middle West the Catawba, Diamond, Niagara, Wilder, 
etc., all of which, hoAvever, are more subject to mildew 
and rot than those first mentioned. There is always a 
great temptation to try new varieties, and these young 
vines often show great promise when planted under 
favorable conditions and in new soil, but when the vines 
are older and the soil becomes somewhat exhausted 
they develop many undesirable qualities. Therefore 
it is best to plant largely only varieties of known hardi- 
ness and market value, and which are profitable in one's 
own locality. 

Marketing the Fruit. 

In large grape-growing sections, the fruit is packed 
for table use in small baskets of three sizes with handles, 
weighing, basket and all, three, five, and ten pounds. In 
this package they may be shipped a long distance and 
delivered to the consumer in the original package. Fruit 
from California is shipped in square baskets, four or six 
in a carrier, and in this way stands shipment a long dis- 
tance. Where the fruit is largely grown it is generally 
bought on the vines by packers, the purchaser picking 



The Grape 193 

and packing the fruit. AVithin a few years the manu- 
facture of grape juice has greatly increased, and a large 
share of the crop in some sections goes to the factory, 
where it is sold in bulk at from $25 to $35 per ton. 
Grapes for packing sell for from one cent to two cents 
per pound according to quality. The yield per acre 
under the best conditions is from two to three tons. 

In New England and near local markets grapes are put 
into shallow trays of 16 x 24 inches, and three inches 
deep. The grapes are packed, beginning at one side, in 
two layers in such a manner that no stems show and the 
grapes with the bloom untouched present a very attrac- 
tive appearance, and sell at a high price. Some growers 
in Massachusetts and Connecticut pack* ten to twelve 
pounds in two layers in the ordinary diamond market 
basket and sell them to hotels and fancy restaurants at a 
better price than they would bring packed in closed 
baskets. 

Girdling the Grape Vine. 

In northern sections where frosts come early it is 
necessary to hasten the ripening of the crop or it may 
be cut off before it is ripe. This is done by girdling or 
ringing the vine — i.e., taking out a ring of bark from 
one-half to one inch wide just back of the fruit, which 
stops the backward flow of the elaborated sap to the 
stem and root back of the girdle, and it goes to the per- 
fection of the leaves and fruit, causing the latter to 
ripen a week or ten days earlier than fruit on ungirdled 
canes. By this practice the northern grower can put his 
grapes into the local market as early or earlier than his 
neighbors of the Hudson River or Lake Shore vineyards. 
It will also be fresher and more attractive, and usually 
commands higher prices. The quality of the fruit is 
somewhat improved by girdling, it being more juicy if 
13 



ig4 The Small Country Place 

not sweeter. It contains more sugar than the fruit from 
ungirdled vines, but this is not apparent to the taste, as 
the acid is more soluble than the sugar. The part of the 
vine girdled must be cut entirely away before the next 
year, as it would make a very slow growth, if any, and 
we must therefore grow sufficient new vine back of the 
girdled part to supply canes for the next season's growth. 

Insects and Fungous Pests. 

There are many insects which attack the grape, the 
most troublesome, perhaps, being the "rose bug." This 
pest comes out of the ground about the time the vine 
blossoms and feeds upon the blossom clusters. It 
works in pairs, a single one of which will often destroy 
several clusters of blossoms in a few hours. In large 
vineyards they only work on the borders, as they come 
in from the grass-fields adjoining, while the centres are 
uninjured. The only remedy for this pest is to take a 
shallow pail or pan, and put in a little water with about a 
half inch of kerosene oil on top. Hold this under the 
cluster of insects, touch them, and they fall into the oil, 
from which they never escape. As these insects are 
coming from the ground from day to day for about two 
weeks, picking must be done two or three times at inter- 
vals of two days or until the petals have fallen from 
the grape flowers, after which the pests do not seem to 
care for them and no further picking is needed. Closer 
attention need be given to vines in the garden, as the 
insects come from all sides and where there are but a few 
vines a covering of mosquito netting would be the most 
effective and satisfactory. 

The grape-leaf hopper is a troublesome pest. It is 
much like the leaf hopper that attacks rose leaves in the 
early summer, causing them to look white and, if the 
attack is long continued, to turn brown and drop off, 



The Grape igy 

the fruit remaining unripe upon the vines until de- 
stroyed by frost. No entirely satisfactory remedy for 
this pest has been found, though spraying with kerosene 
emulsion with all the force possible as soon as the pest 
appears will check their depredations. Clean cultiva- 
tion also helps the vines to overcome their injury. 

Fungous Pests. 

Diseases of several kinds are more destructive to the 
grape than insects. The downy and powdery mildew is 
very abundant on the leaves and fruit in moist hot 
weather, causing the leaves to fall off and the fruit to 
remain unripe. Fig. 71 shows vines sprayed and un- 
sprayed. Varieties like the Delaware, Brighton, Niag- 
ara, etc., are much subject to these attacks. The black 
rot is a fungus which attacks the fruit, causing it to turn 
brown and often destroying the entire crop. If the rot 
appears when the berries are small they dry up and are 
black in color, but if it does not appear until the fruit is 
nearly ripe they fall off before turning black. This pest 
and the mildews are kept in check by spraying with the 
Bordeaux mixture, applying it just before the blossom 
buds open, repeating it two or three times at intervals 
of a week or ten days. If Paris green at the rate of one- 
fourth pound to fifty gallons of the mixture is used, it 
will kill some of the leaf-eating insects that attack the 
vine, possibly some of the rose bugs. 

Were it not for the insects and fungous pests, and the 
damage by frosts, grape growing on the high hills of 
New England would become a most profitable industry, 
as by the process of girdling above described the time 
of ripening can be hastened so as to successfully com- 
pete with the large crops of the West. 



CHAPTER X 



The Bush Fruits 



THE raspberry, the blackberry and the currant 
are almost a necessity in the home garden, and 
when properly cared for are profitable field 
crops. The raspberry and blackberry require somewhat 
the same conditions and treatment. They will grow 
upon almost any good garden soil if it is well under- 
drained, but to produce large fruit there must be an 
abundance of moisture in the soil at the time of 
ripening. This is obtained upon a thin soil by plow- 
ing in heavy dressings of stable manure or green 
crops, by mulching, by frequent stirring of the soil, 
or by irrigation. These are propagated by suckers 
from the roots — i.e., shoots coming from buds on the 
roots — and by root cuttings. The latter are much the 
best to plant, as they have much larger and finer roots. 
Root cuttings are made by digging up in the fall a lot of 
the roots of the kind desired and cutting them into 
lengths of about two inches. These are planted before 
the ground freezes, in trenches about five inches wide 
and two or three inches apart, about as thick as peas 
would be planted, and covered with two inches of rich 
soil. Before the ground freezes the trench should be 
covered with four to six inches of strawy horse manure 
or straw. In the spring, after the hard freezing is over, 
the coarse cover is carefully raked off and the surface 
raked smooth. During the summer one or more shoots 
will grow from each piece of root, which by the end of the 
season will be a foot or more high and will make the best 

198 



The Bush Fruits igc) 

plants for fall planting. If one is not ready to plant the 
roots in the fall, they may be packed in moist soil out of 
doors or in a cold cellar until early spring, when they 
must be planted at the earliest possible time. But they 
are not as certain to grow as when planted in the fall. 

Black-caps, purple-caps, and dewberries are propa- 
gated by the rooting of the tips of the canes. These will 
root by simply lying on the ground for a little time, but 
the rooting will be hastened by covering with a little soil. 
Raspberries are planted in hills three by four, or in rows 
five feet apart, and blackberry plants in hills four by 
five or in rows five or six feet apart. In the garden the 
hills and rows may be closer than in the field, where the 
horse is used in cultivating. All suckers that are not 
needed to make up full rows or hills are treated as weeds. 
Neither of these crops should be planted in the fence 
comers or near the boundary line, as suckers will be sure 
to spread over the line. Frequent cultivation must be 
given to keep down the weeds. 

Black-cap and purple-cap raspberries are grown in 
some sections for market, while in others there is de- 
mand only for home use. The black-cap is hardy and 
productive, but owing to onslaughts of insects and 
fungous pests a plantation must be more frequently 
renewed than the red varieties. The purple-caps are not 
quite hardy and the color of the fruit makes it unsalable, 
yet in quahty it is superior to the red or black-caps. 

Pruning raspberries and blackberries is a simple proc- 
ess. The fruiting canes should be cut out as soon as 
the fruit has been gathered, and all surplus and weak 
canes are taken out at the same time. Some growers 
cut or pinch back the new growth to from two to three 
feet high to make them grow stocky and be self-support- 
ing, while others let the canes grow full length and sup- 
port them by wires or other kinds of trellis. The work 



200 



The Small Country Place 



of pruning may be done at any time after the leaves 
have fallen, but is generally left until growth begins so 
that the dead wood may then be distinguished and cut 
away and the live wood preserved. Many varieties are 
weak in growth and require some support. When 




Fig. 72 — Trellis With Cross Supports for Raspberry and 
Blackberry Canes. 

planted in hills a stake may be driven in each hill; 
when in rows, a wire stretched on both sides (Fig. 72) 
will give all the support needed. The wires are first 
stretched loosely from crosspieces twelve to fifteen 
inches long nailed on stakes planted at intervals of ten 
to fifteen feet. The canes are then drawn inside and 




Fig. 73 — Trellis Without Cross Supports. 

the wires drawn up taut and caught upon a nail, thus 
holding them in an upright position. When the canes 
are not very thick and the rows close together no cross- 
piece need be used, the wares being simply crossed over 
the stake (Fig. 73). These wires may be loosened at 
any time, thrown over into the middle of the row, and 



The Bush Fruits 20 1 

again brought up against any canes that may have grown 
outside the wire. This support is a great help in pick- 
ing the fruit, which can be done more comfortably. 
No. 14 galvanized wire is large enough for this purpose, 
and if of good quality, well galvanized, will last from 
ten to twenty years. Posts or stakes for this support 
will last but six to eight years. Chestnut, cedar, locust 
and catalpa make durable stakes. 

Under favorable conditions raspberry and blackberry 
plantations will continue profitable for a great many 
years, but as a rule the greatest profit will be obtained 
if a new plantation is made every six or eight years. 

Insects and Diseases. 

Neither the red raspberry or blackberry is often se- 
riously injured by insects, but the black-cap is often 
nearly destroyed by the " cane-girdler. " This insect 
cuts a ring around the new canes soon after they start 
from the ground and lays an egg below the cut. When 
this egg hatches the cane breaks off and the young 
larva has a large supply of food from the girdled place. 
It continues to feed downward, often going into the 
roots and thus destroying the entire plant. The rem- 
edy is to cut off the end of the girdled cane half an inch 
to an inch below the girdling as soon as it begins to wilt, 
and bum it. 

A leaf blight attacks the raspberries in wet, hot 
weather, especially when the plants are not growing 
vigorously, often causing all but two or three of the 
leaves on the ends of the canes to fall before ripening. 
The "spring" orange rust often attacks the leaves of 
some varieties of the blackberry, developing large 
masses of beautiful orange spores in the early summer. 
This generally kills the canes attacked and when dis- 
covered the infested stalks should be cut out at once 



202 The Small Country Place 

and burned. The "fall or summer" orange rust attacks 
the under sides of the leaves of some varieties in mid- 
season, causing them to fall and the co.isequent drying 
up of the fruit. The above fungous pests are kept in 
check and prevented from doing serious harm by spray- 
ine with the Bordeaux mixture before the leaves unfold, 
again just before the flowers open, and again as soon 
as the fruit is picked. If sprayed when the fruit is 
half grown the mixture adheres so as to render it 
unsalable. 

The dewberry or running blackberry is successfully 
grown in some sections. The plants are set in rows 
three and one-half to four feet apart, the canes lying on 
the ground during the summer. 

The horse cultivator is run the same way every 
time, so that the canes may not be torn by the teeth 
catching in them. At the North, where the canes are 
liable to be winter killed, a light covering of hay, straw, 
or pine boughs is placed over them. For summer growth 
and fruiting the canes are tied up to keep the fruit from 
the ground. This species, being nearly two weeks earlier 
in ripening than the "high bush" blackberry, brings a 
higher price and has been made very profita.ble. 

Varieties. 

The following are the varieties most generally grown: 
Red raspberries— Cuthbert, Miller; black-cap raspber- 
ries — Cumberland, Ohio, Hilborn ; purple-cap rasp- 
berries — Columbian, Shaffer; blackberries (high) — Aga- 
wam, Snyder, Eldorado; dewberries — Lucretia. 

The Currant. 

This is distinctly a home fruit, being found more 
or less in every garden, but in many places it is grown 
extensivelv for market. It is a very healthful fruit, its 



The Bush Fruits 203 

rich, clear acid making it especially palatable during 
hot weather. It is easily grown but is often planted 
away in a neglected corner of the garden, in which case 
the fruit is likely to be small and of poor quality. It is 
propagated in the same manner as the grape, shoots of 
the last season's growth being cut up into lengths of 
six to eight inches as soon in the fall as the leaves fall. 
When planted early roots often form before winter sets 
in and the plants make a large growth the following 
spring. The cutting bed must be covered with hay or 
coarse manure to keep them from being heaved out by 
the frost. A rich, moist, but well-underdrained soil is 
necessary for success with this fruit, the plants being set 
three by five or four by six according to the variety and 
the method of pruning. Success in growing large fruit 
depends upon the richness of the soil and the method of 
pruning. The largest and best fruit is borne upon 
canes two and three years old, therefore we cut out all 
wood older than this and thin out the small wood so 
as to have only a limited amount of the strongest canes. 
By this method of pruning a large yield of fruit is 
produced and it is so large and fine that it sells for the 
highest prices. Thorough cultivation must be given, 
and an annual dressing of stable manure or fruit-tree 
fertilizer. The third year from planting, young currant 
bushes should produce a paying crop of fruit, and from 
this time on should yield annual crops as long as they 
are well cared for. In some soils the bushes are heaved 
out by frosts, and in the fall, just before the ground 
freezes up, the soil should be plowed up against them 
or a heavy covering of stable manure be put about 
them. The currant may be grown under the shade of 
trees better than any other fruit. (Fig. 63.) 



204 The Small Country Place 

Varieties. 

Only a few varieties of currants are grown, there 
being less difference in them than in the varieties of 
other fruit, the size, productiveness, and quality being 
largely dependent upon the richness of the soil, the 
cultivation given, and the pruning. Of the red varie- 
ties, the Fay, Cherry, Wilder and Red Cross are the 
largest and most productive. Of the white varieties, 
the White Grape and White Imperial are among the 
best, the last named being of especially fine quality. 

Black or English currants are sometimes grown for 
home use, and near factory villages of English people 
there is some demand for them. The bushes are hardy, 
very productive, and free from all insect and fungous 
attack. The fruit of the yellow-flowered currant is of 
some value, especially the variety known as Crandall's 
Improved, but it ripens unequally upon the bushes so 
that the crop cannot all be picked at one time. In 
quality this fruit is superior to that of the black or 
EngHsh currant. 

Insect and Fungous Pests. 

The worst enemy of the currant bushes is the currant 
worm, known wherever there are currant bushes. The 
mature insect lays its eggs on the mid-rib of the leaves. 
The worms soon hatch out, and first each one makes a 
minute hole in the leaf upon which the egg was laid. 
They feed very vigorously and in ten days or two weeks 
the leaves will have been entirely eaten up. The w^orm 
is destroyed by hellebore used with the Bordeaux 
mixture. 

A cane-girdler similar to the one attacking the black- 
cap raspberry lays its eggs near the ends of the new- 
growing cane in June; the end of this cane wilts and 



The Bush Fruits 205 

breaks off, when the larva works down into the cane, 
often destroying from one to two feet in length. This 
pest is destroyed by cutting off the cane a little below 
the injury as soon as the wilting is discovered. A leaf- 
blight fungus often comes upon the leaves of the cur- 
rant before the fruit is ripe, causing them to fall and 
leave the bushes bare for the rest of the season, thus 
weakening them so that the growth the next year is 
very poor, and in some cases killing the bushes in a 
few years. This may be prevented by the use of the 
Bordeaux mixture applied before the buds open, as 
soon as the fruit has set, and again as soon as the fruit 
has been gathered. This spraying and that for the cur- 
rant worm is done by adding one-fourth pound of helle- 
bore to fifty gallons of the Bordeaux. 

The Gooseberry. 

This is a desirable fruit for making jams and pre- 
serves, and is easily grown, but there is little demand 
for it in any but the very large markets. It requires the 
same kind of soil as the currant and the same treatment 
as to cultivation, pruning, and insect and fungous pests. 
Gooseberry bushes are most easily propagated by laying 
the lower branches, stooling — i.e., cutting the bushes 
close to the ground and allowing numerous shoots to 
grow out at the stumps, and mounding up moist soil 
about them, when roots will form upon the base of each 
shoot. The principal difficulty in growing the goose- 
berry, especially the English varieties, is a mildew that 
attacks the fruit and leaves. This is remedied in part 
by the Bordeaux mixture. Most of the American seed- 
lings are comparatively free from this disease. 

The fruit of the currant and gooseberry is sold in 
quart strawberry baskets packed in the 3 2 -quart crate, 
the currants selling for from eight to fifteen cents per 



2o6 The Small Country Place 

quart. The gooseberry is marketed both in the green 
and ripe state, and sells at about the same price as the 
currant. 

Varieties. 

Among the varieties of the gooseberry to be recom- 
mended are: English — Industry, Triumph, and White- 
smith; American — Downing, Pearl, and Red Jacket. 

The Strawberry. 

In many particulars this fruit is of more importance 
than the apple or the grape. It can be grown on smaller 
areas, takes the shortest time to produce, and comes 
earlier in the season. It is a healthful fruit, and will 
yield more to the acre than any other, large or small, 
having yielded, on small plots, at the rate of over 20,000 
quarts per acre, and a single acre has produced more 
than 15,000 quarts. 

The Soil. 

The strawberry succeeds best in a deep, sandy loam 
soil, well supplied with organic matter from stable or 
clover sod or other material turned under the previous 
season. Upon land in an ordinarily good condition ten 
to fifteen cords of stable manure may be used, or a good 
crop may be grown in such land with commercial fertil- 
izers rich in potash and phosphoric acid, from 1500 to 
2000 pounds per acre. This had best be put on at 
three intervals — i.e., 500 pounds spread on the rows at 
setting the plants, 500 more in early July, and the bal- 
ance the last of August or early September. 

Setting the Plants. 

Plants for setting should be young runners with an 
abundance of white roots. These are taken from the 
edges of fruiting beds or from beds grown for this pur- 
pose, the latter generally being stronger. The spring 



The Bush Fruits 



207 



is the best time for planting, as the plants are dormant 
the weather is generally moist and cool, and roots are 
formed more quickly than later. They may, however, 
be set at any time from April to September with some 
degree of success. 

Methods of Planting. 

Three methods of planting are practised, the hill, the 
hedge-row, and the matted-row systems. In the hill 




Fig. 74 — Strawberry Plants in Hills. 

system (Fig. 74) as many plants as it is desired to fruit 
are planted and all runners are kept cut off as fast as 
they start until at the end of the season we have large 
plants (stools), with a great many crown buds which 
under favorable conditions will produce a large number 
of berries per plant. The plants are generally set in 
rows two and one-half to three feet apart and eighteen 
inches in the roAV. By this method the labor of keeping 
the runners cut off is great, but as no runners interfere the 



2o8 



The Small Country Place 



hoe can be run in about the plants and the bed kept free 
from weeds as cheaply as if the plants were allowed to 
make runners. By the hedge row (Fig. 75) plants are 
set in rows about three feet apart and from two to three 
feet in the row, and runners enough are allowed to grow 
to fill out a bed of three feet with plants one foot apart. 
With plants set early in the spring these runners will 
make growth nearly as large as the hill plants but it 
takes more work to keep the weeds from among them 




Fig. 75 — Strawberry Field. The Double Hed2:e-Row System. 

than under the hill system. The matted-row system is 
where plants are set at various distances, according to 
soil, three by three, four by four, and four by five feet 
apart, and all the runners allowed to grow, covering beds 
two to three feet in width. When the plants are set the 
greater distance, and the runners are allowed to root not 
nearer than four or five inches apart, the crop of fruit 
will be large and of fine quality, but when all the runners 
grow over a narrow space, the plants will be weak, the 
fruit small and in wet weather of poor color and quality, 
and will decay quickly. 



The Bush Fruits 20g 

With all of these systems it is best to keep all of the 
runners cut off from the old plants until they have 
gained considerable strength, generally up to the first 
of July, before the permanent runners are allowed to 
root. It takes more work to keep the weeds out of a 
matted row than from the hills or hedge rows, as most 
of them must be pulled by hand, the hoe starting the 
half-rooted plants as it is run in among them. . 

Thorough and frequent cultivation must be given 
from the time the plants are set until the ground freezes 
in the fall, as many weeds like grasses and chickweed 
grow at any time when the ground is not frozen. One of 
the great advantages of the hill system is that this work 
can be done with the horse the wide way of the plants, 
and the narrow way with the hand wheel-hoe. In the 
spring we have grasses, pigweed, shepherd's purse, chick- 
weed, etc., to contend with; in the summer, "pusley," 
barnyard grass, etc., and in the fall, shepherd's purse, sor- 
rel, chickweed, etc., and the time to kill them is when the 
little seedlings are bursting through the ground. From 
April to July the work, except pulling off the runners, 
may be entirely done by the horse with the cultivator 
and weeder. The latter tool covers six feet of surface 
at once, and where the soil is free from sticks, grass, 
or weeds, the plants will not be injured by it. 

Winter Protection. 

The strawberry plant is perfectly hardy to the far 
north, but is easily injured during the winter by freez- 
ing and thawing weather, especially in moist soils, and 
must be covered for protection from this danger. Coarse 
strawy manure, old hay or straw, pine needles, pine 
boughs, etc., may be used for this purpose. Care should 
be taken that the covering material does not contain 
weed seeds. Most growers put this covering on after 



210 The Small Country Place 

the ground has been frozen hard enough to hold up the 
horse and load, but as in many cases there is a long-con- 
tinued spell of freezing and thawing weather before this 
condition is reached, it is best to put on a light covering 
as soon as severe freezing occurs and then in the North 
add more covering as the weather becomes colder. The 
mulch is generally spread over the entire surface, but 
when the rows are wide apart only the bed of plants 
need be covered. In the spring some growers remove 
the mulch from the beds and cultivate the soil until the 
fruit begins to form and then return it, but most of 
them let it lie upon the beds, simply drawing it away 
from the crowns of the plants so that they may work 
out without injury. On light land subject to drouth 
the former practice will give the best results, while in 
heavy soils the moisture dries out more rapidly if the 
mulch is not removed. Quickly soluble fertilizers are 
sometimes applied in the spring, but if used in large 
quantities they tend to produce a leaf growth at the 
expense of the fruit. A dressing of acid phosphate and 
sulphate of potash put on very early in the spring, or 
just as the fruit is beginning to form, will often greatly 
increase the yield, but as a rule it is best to use the 
plant food in the summer and fall. Nitrogenous fertil- 
izers should not be used in the spring when the fruit is 
beginning to form. 

Harvesting the Fruit. 

One of the great trials of the strawberry grower is 
getting his fruit picked, packed, and marketed. The 
fruit ripens rapidly and must be picked every day or 
every other day, and unfavorable weather often pre- 
vents it being harvested in good condition. It is often 
difficult, too, to find help to pick and properly pack the 
fruit. Women and children are generally employed for 



^:^ie 




The Bush Fruits 213 

this work and are paid by the box, though when fancy 
berries are produced that require especial care in pick- 
ing, etc., men are sometimes employed (Fig. 76). It 
is a very trying job to keep a lot of young strawberry 
pickers in order so that they will at all times do good 
work. To get the best results one attendant or overseer 
is required in the field to look after twelve to fifteen 
pickers and another to carry in the berries and keep 
records. To pack the fruit for this number of pickers 
one person is needed when the berries are only topped 
out and two when all are sorted. Many growers make 
two sorts, No. I berries being sold with the grower's 
stamp, while the No. 2 grade is sold without the stamp. 
As soon as the berries are picked they should be put in 
a cool, dry shed or cellar, but not upon ice unless they 
are to be kept a long time. If wet when picked they 
should be placed in a cool draft if possible to dry them 
off before packing in the crates. The most common 
package is the 3 2 -quart crate. This is a gift package 
costing from ten to fifteen cents each. Southern grow- 
ers who ship their fruit to the North must buy new 
crates for each crop, as the old ones are not returned to 
them, but those at the North secure these crates early 
in the season at almost a nominal cost or as a gift 
package, exchanging each full crate for an empty one. 

Varieties. 

The varieties of the strawberry in cultivation may be 
divided into two groups — the staminate or perfect 
flowered kinds that have both stamens and pistils, and 
those that have pistils only and will produce no fruit 
unless staminate flowered varieties are planted beside 
them. These two kinds are arranged in many ways, 
but the best results will be obtained if a bed of three or 
four rows of one kind is planted and then the same 



214 The Small Country Place 

of the other. Pistillate varieties are generally more pro- 
ductive than those having stamens and pistils. 

Many new varieties are introduced each year with 
high recommendations, but very few of them prove of 
much value; yet as old varieties soon deteriorate, it 
becomes necessary to plant new kinds after a few years. 
There is now scarcely a variety in cultivation that was 
grown ten to fifteen years ago. 

There is great fascination in testing new varieties, 
yet when we consider that not one in a hundred of the 
new varieties equals the old standard sorts, we should 
go slow in planting largely any new kind. The trial of 
a dozen or two plants of a kind under two or three dif- 
ferent conditions will enable one to determine whether or 
not it is wise to plant it largely. 

Of the varieties now generally grown the following are 
the best: Staminate or perfect — Clyde, Brandy wine. 
Senator Dunlap, Corsican; pistillate or imperfect — 
Sample, Haverland, Bubach. 

Insect and Fungous Pests. 

The strawberry is subject to these pests but not to the 
extent that some other fruits are, and they are more 
easily kept under control than many others. 

The most destructive insect is the larva of the June- 
bug or May-beetle. This insect lays its eggs in land where 
there is an abundance of grass or other fine roots for its 
larvae to feed upon, and if we turn such soil over and set 
strawberry plants in it, the grass roots being gone these 
larvae feed upon the strawberry roots. To avoid this 
pest, therefore, we cultivate the land for one or two 
years with some other hoed crop like corn, potatoes, 
etc. The black paria and strawberry-crown borer are 
minute beetles that lay their eggs close up to the crown 
of the strawberry plants; the larvae feed upon the roots, 



The Bush Fruits 215 

and later, in the beetle form, upon the leaves, often doing 
much harm. The remedy for these two little pests is to 
grow only one crop on the land each year, planting a bed 
each spring, harvesting the crop the following year, and 
plowing under the tops, mulch and all, while the larvae 
are feeding upon the roots. Spraying with Paris green 
and the Bordeaux mixture may kill many of them, but 
this is hardly needed as plowing the immature larvae 
will destroy most of them. 

The strawberry blight is the only serious fungous pest 
met with. This comes upon the plants at any time from 
planting to the ripening of the fruit when the weather 
is moist and warm and the plants are not in a vigorous 
and active condition. It appears as small reddish- 
brown spots upon the leaves and when numerous causes 
them to dry up. The remedy is to begin with the young 
plants before they are set by dipping them in the Bor- 
deaux mixture, and spraying once or twice after during 
the summer. Then the following spring spray as soon 
as the mulch is drawn off, and again before the blos- 
soms open. 

The strawberry crop is especially the crop for the 
beginner, or one starting in business upon a new place, 
because in twelve to fifteen months from planting a crop 
may be expected, and from a few plants we may in a 
year or two grow enough to plant acres, and at the 
same time produce fruit for market. 



CHAPTER XI 



Market Gardening 



THE home garden has been discussed in Chap- 
ter VI, and this chapter we shall devote to 
market gardening, or commercial gardening. 
By market gardening we mean growing garden crops 
in large areas and where individuals are devoting all of 
their energies to this one line. Market gardens are gen- 
erally located near large cities (within five to ten miles) , 
where the produce can be taken to market on wagons; 
yet many are successfully carrying on the business at a 
much greater distance from market, and shipping their 
produce by express or freight. There are advantages in 
favor of both locations. When near the markets one 
may be able to watch prices from day to day and sell or 
hold any crop as the market may warrant. Supplies, 
too, may be bought cheaper, and the cost of transporta- 
tion both ways will be much less. On the other hand, 
land near large markets generally commands a high 
price. 

In the country at long distances from markets 
land is cheap, and one may find that which is adapted 
to any crop desired. Rotation, too, may be practised 
on the larger area which the lower prices would render 
available, whereby crops may be grown with less cost 
than if the same crop were grown on land continuously 
cropped, and with the modern methods of trans- 
portation by express on both steam and trolley lines 
produce can be carried at low rates. Moreover the 
modern commercial fertilizers are made in such variety 

216 



Market Gardening 217 

and to such perfection that one is not wholly dependent 
upon stable manure, which is very expensive, especially 
when hauled a long distance. 

In treating of the various market-garden crops in this 
chapter, the limited space will prevent our going into 
minute details, therefore only the most essential points 
will be touched upon. 

The Soil. 

For the most successful market gardening a variety 
of soils is a great advantage. For peas, beans, corn, 
squashes, melons, etc., rather light, warm land is best, 
while for celery, cabbages, cauliflowers, etc., a deep, 
moist, clay loam will give the best crops; yet a deep, 
moist loam, facing south, thoroughly underdrained, will 
grow almost any crop if properly fitted and cultivated. 
Even a sandy loam, well fitted with plant food and or- 
ganic matter, may be made to grow any crop except, 
perhaps, celery. 

Glass Structures Needed. 

While one may grow many market-garden crops with 
profit without glass, it will be found more profitable to 
have a few hot-bed sash (Fig. 77) or a small green- 
house (Fig. 78) under which to start plants to be trans- 
planted early to the open ground, and thus compete 
more advantageously with the Southern growers or 
those more favorably located near by. 

Thus cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, celery, pepper, and 
other plants may be started under glass and grown to a 
considerable size, and when put out of doors will mature 
the crop in a much shorter time- than if the seed were 
planted in the field. The first cost of cold frames and 
hot-beds is less than that of greenhouses, and they are 
much less expensive to run, though both require close at- 
tention and skill to make them successful and profitable. 



2l8 



The Small Country Place 




Fig. 77- 



-The Hot-Bed. Note Sash, Mats, 
and Shutters. 



For the making, care, and management of cold frames 
and hot-beds see Chap. VI, page 117. 

Small greenhouses have many advantages over hot- 
beds, and when we consider the cost of sash, mats, and 
shutters, and the outlay for labor to shovel, snow, to 

cover and uncover 
every day, or perhaps 
several times each 
day, the cost of the 
former is but little 
more than that of the 
latter. Fig. 78 shows 
a small, cheaply built 
' ' lean - to " house in 
which large numbers 
of early plants may 
be grown. The labor of running a hot- water or steam 
heater is much less than the covering and uncovering 
required for hot-beds, 
and one can work in 
such a house with 
comfort no matter 
what the weather may 
be outside and have 
perfect control of all 
conditions necessary 
for success. Better 
and earlier plants may 
be grown in the small 
greenhouse than under frames, with perhaps the single 
exception of lettuce, but with this crop the plants 
may be better started in the house and transplanted 
to the frames. To run hot-beds or greenhouses requires 
the closest attention and good judgment. One must 
learn by actual experience the conditions under which 




Fig. 78 — A Small Greenhouse. 



Market Gardening 219 

the various plants are grown, and one can hardly expect 
to be successful in every first attempt. For directions 
for the care and management of greenhouses see 
"Greenhouse Management," by Taft. 

In the business of market gardening one must begin 
planning and work in winter, even if no glass is used. 
Plans must be fully matured, and seeds, fertilizers, 
tools, etc., must be on hand for prompt use the mo- 
ment conditions are favorable for out-door work. Dur- 
ing the month of January we may decide what crops 
to grow, what fertilizers to use, what methods of grow- 
ing to pursue, and learn as far as possible what others 
are planning to plant and what the market is likely to 
be. In February we should have our seeds and all 
other supplies on hand and decide when and how we 
will start our seeds, if under glass or in the field, get 
manure on the land, make up the early hot-beds, etc. 
See that all tools are in working order. 

In March at the South and along the coast, garden 
work is in various stages of development, from almost 
full maturity of crops at the South to the starting of the 
seeds at the North, fitting the land, sowing the first seeds 
of onions, peas, radishes, etc., out of doors. In April 
we uncover the rhubarb, clean up and harrow the as- 
paragus bed, get in seeds of the more important market- 
garden crops promptly and in rapid succession. As the 
season advances one crop follows another as the first 
matures until the last planting of beets, cabbages, and 
cauliflower in July and August, and turnips last of all. 

Fitting the Land. 

The more quickly vegetables are grown the more suc- 
culent and desirable they are. Therefore the land must 
be made very rich to start with, and many market gar- 
deners start by applying fifteen to twenty cords of 



220 The Small Country Place 

stable manure per acre and expect to obtain at least two 
and sometimes three crops from the same land in a 
season, though often using a liberal dressing of com- 
mercial fertilizer to help bring on the last crop. Each 
of the principal market-garden crops will require special 
treatment of the details of which our space will allow only 
a brief mention, but the reader is referred to the fol- 
lowing books: "Vegetable Gardening" (Green), "How 
to Make the Garden Pay" (Griener), "Success in Mar- 
ket Gardening" (Rawson). We note the most impor- 
tant points to be considered in growing the following 

crops: . 

^ Asparagus. 

This crop succeeds best in a light sandy soil, free 
from small stones if possible. Plants are started from 
seed sown in the spring in long rows or beds as carrot 
or onion seeds are sown, and to make the best plants 
are thinned out to two inches apart. They are in the 
best condition for planting the following spring, though 
many prefer to set plants two years old. 

Planting. 

The land is plowed as deeply as possible with a 
single plow or, better, the subsoil or trench plow may 
follow it, thus working the soil from twelve to fifteen 
inches deep. After thorough harrowing it is furrowed 
deeply five feet apart, the plants to be set eighteen 
inches in the row. If a large plow is used and run two 
or three times in a furrow they may be made from 
eight to ten inches deep, which is the best depth for 
setting the asparagus plants. Manure or fertilizer 
may be used in the furrow before the plants are set, 
or it may be spread on broadcast before plowing. The 
plants are set about eighteen inches apart and covered 
with only a few inches of soil well pressed upon the 
roots with the feet. 



Market Gardening 221 

When the plants are well started the trench is gradu- 
ally filled until, about the middle of July, the land is 
level. To secure the most profit, from one-half to one 
ton of high-grade fertilizer or its equivalent in chemi- 
cals, or five to ten cords of good stable manure should 
be applied each spring and thoroughly harrowed in 
before growth begins. 

If the growth has been large cutting from the young 
bed may begin the second year, but if small not until 
the third year, the first time of cutting being only for 
three or four weeks, increasing the time until the old 
beds are cut from April to the middle of June. The 
stalks are cut when from six to eight inches long, with a 
forked knife, a little below the level of the ground. 
These stalks are tied in small bundles or bunches of 
various sizes for different markets. The size most in 
use is such that thirty-six bunches standing on end will 
fill a bushel box full level with the top. In gathering, 
all stalks are cut; the very small and imperfect are 
dropped to the ground as cut, or thrown out as the 
stalks are bunched. Bunching is done with an ad- 
justed buncher by which the exact size is obtained and 
the bunch firmly held in place until tied. Tying is done 
with raffia fibre, which is strong and flat and does not 
cut into the stalks when drawn tightly, as it must be to 
have the bunch hold together as it is handled in mar- 
keting. This is one of the most profitable crops, selling 
at from $i to $3 per dozen bunches, according to the 
season and the supply. Several varieties are cultivated 
but the kinds most grown are Connover's, Barr's Mam- 
moth, and Palmetto, there being little choice in them 
except that perhaps the last is less subject to rust than 
the others. Fig. 86 shows how this crop and poultry 
may be combined ; during cutting small chickens may be 
allowed to run over the bed and after cutting, all, 



222 The Small Country Place 

young and old, may run. Thus insect pests are 
destroyed, the weeds are killed, the ground cultivated 
and fertilized. 

Beans. 

A light warm soil is best for beans, and they may be 
sometimes grown as a second crop, following any crop 
that is off the land by the ist of July, though for 
early market they must be planted as soon as the soil 
gets well warmed up and the danger of frost is past. 
It is a desirable crop with which to fit new land for a 
crop like melons, strawberries, tomatoes, etc. It is 
also a good crop for orchards, as it draws much of its 
nitrogen from the air. In heavy land the seed should 
be covered but lightly, but in light land and in a dry 
time they may be covered two or three times their own 
thickness. The land should be cultivated frequently, 
but not when the leaves are wet, as if done at this time 
it is thought to cause a blight upon the leaves and fruit. 

Varieties. 

Nearly every variety has its "bush" and "pole" 
forms, the former of which requires no poles. The pole 
beans, however, generally yield larger crops than the 
dwarf or bush forms. Beans are marketed in three 
ways, as "string," "shell," and dry beans. The first 
are picked while the pods are yet tender ; the second are 
picked while the seeds are tender yet full grown. All 
varieties may be used as dry beans for baking, though 
the small, white, yellow-eyed, and red-eyed varieties 
are grown especially for this purpose. 

Among the best varieties for general use are: String 
beans — Dwarf Golden Wax, Early Valentine, Early 
Six Weeks; Shell beans — Pole Horticultural, Dwarf 
Horticultural, Kentucky Wonder, Burpee's Dwarf Lima; 



Market Gardening 223 

Field beans — Boston Pea, Marrowfat, Red-eyed Pea, 
Yellow-eyed Golden-podded. The last is valuable as a 
string bean and for winter use. 

Beets. 

Beets are a profitable crop and easily grown. They 
may be put into the market bunched from the hot-beds 
or greenhouse, or early from the field from transplants 
from the house or hot-bed. On rich land with a south- 
ern exposure the seed may be sown as soon as the land 
will work up fine and mellow, and they are profitable as a 
late crop following any crop that matures by the middle 
of July. The seed is sown in drills fifteen to eighteen 
inches apart and the plants thinned out to two or three 
inches apart. The early crop is sold tied in bunches of 
five, and sell at from 25 cents to 50 cents per dozen 
bunches. To keep up a supply of tender beets for home 
use or the market, seed must be sown at two or three 
different times, the last sowing to be not later than 
August I St. The late crop should be harvested before 
severe freezing weather, and to keep them from wilting 
in a dry cellar they should be packed in slightly moist 
soil or leaves. The late crop is sold by the bushel, 
bringing from 50 cents to $1.00 per bushel. 

Varieties. 

The kinds that are most grown are Egyptian, Dew- 
ing's Improved, Edmunds, etc. For poultry as a winter 
feed the mangel-wurzel is largely grown. 

Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Brussels Sprouts, Etc. 

These being closely related may be treated under one 
heading. With the cabbage the development is in the 
form of an enlarged bud; in the cauliflower the flower- 
stalk is enlarged and fleshy; while in the sprouts small 



224 



The Small Country Place 



solid buds are formed in the axil of the leaves. They 
are all gross feeders and all do well when planted in 
new, rich, moist soil — i.e., land recently in turf. 

For the early crop of cabbages the plants are started 
under glass, the aim being to have large, well-hardened 
plants ready to put out as soon as the danger of severe 
freezing is past, an ordinary frost not injuring them if 
w^ell hardened, though frequent freezing and thawing 
would do so. The land should be made rich with stable 








Fig. 79 — Late Cabbage, following Strawberries, 
in the Distance. 






Blackberry Field 



manure or fertilizer containing a large amount of potash. 

No crop is more benefited by frequent cultivation 
than the cabbage group, and in the field they may be 
so planted that the horse may do all of this w^ork until 
the leaves cover the ground and would be broken off 
by the cultivator. 

The early crop is grown so as to be marketed from 
July to September, and the late crop in October to 
midwinter (Fig. 79). The large-growing kinds are 



Market Gardening ' 225 

planted three to three and one-half feet, and the smaller 
two to three feet apart. In the local market they are 
sold by the piece, but they are shipped in barrels, the 
weight being about 100 pounds per barrel, and they 
sell for from 50 cents to $1.50 per barrel. Cabbages 
are wintered in trenches or in cold cellars. The trench 
is made in light soil and on a slope. First a deep fur- 
row^ is plowed at the top of the slope and the heads on 
the stump, with the outer leaves pulled off, are placed 
in an upright position in this furrow, the soil being 
pressed firmly under the head. Then another furrow 
is plowed, throwing the soil up against the first row, 
and so on until all are " trenched." This should not 
be done until freezing weather, and if the weather should 
be warm after they are trenched only a light covering 
of soil should be put over the head, until the frost is 
an inch or two thick. As the weather grows colder 
more covering must be applied, but it requires good 
judgment to cover just enough but not so much as to 
cause decay. From this trench the cabbages may be 
taken out at any time during the winter or mild days, 
and trimmed for market. 

Varieties. 

For early market — Etampes, Early Jersey Wakefield, 
Early Summer. For second early market — Winnig- 
stadt, all seasons. For late market— Danish Ball 
Head, Flat Dutch, Late Drumhead, Purple Drumhead, 
Improved Savoy. 

The Cauliflower. 

The cauliflower requires practically the same treat- 
ment as the cabbage as to soil and cultivation, but 
needs more care in starting the seed and a richer soil. 
A moist seed-bed of fine rich soil must be provided and 
15 



226 The Small Country Place 

the seeds covered but lightly with fine soil. If the bed 
is much exposed to sun or drying winds, a sheet of 
cheesecloth or burlap should be stretched over the bed 
during the dryest part of the day, until the seeds are 
well up, or a light covering of fine sphagnum may be 
sifted over them. More care is required in transplant- 
ing the cauliflower than the cabbage, but otherwise the 
cultural treatment is the same. When the heads begin 
to form the outside leaves are drawn together and tied 
with a soft string or raffia to keep the heads white. 
They must be marketed while solid and are packed in 
bushel or barrel boxes so as not to injure one another, 
one layer only in a box. From four to six are packed in 
the bushel box and from ten to fifteen in the large boxes. 
Cauliflower sells at from 5 to 25 cents per head, thus 
making it a profitable crop where one has just the 
right conditions for the growth. 

Varieties. 

The varieties most grown are Early Snowball, Dwarf 
Erfurt, and Le Normand's Short-stem. 

Brussels Sprouts. 

Many people are fond of these little "bud cabbages," 
and in large markets they are in good demand. They 
require the same treatment as the cabbage. For mar- 
ket they are picked as they mature, the lowest first and 
the others as they come to maturity, and are sold by the 
bushel to the wholesaler, to be retailed by the quart or 
half-peck. 

Varieties. 

Dreer's Select Matchless and Long Island Half-dwarf 
are the more popular kinds now cultivated. 



Market Gardening 227 

Carrots. 

This crop is grown for table use and for feeding cattle 
and horses. It is one of those crops the planting of 
which may be put off until all other crops are in the 
ground, or it may be planted at the time of planting 
beets, parsnips, and onions; but the early sown crop 
will be too tough and woody for table use in winter. 
When sown late the growth is largely made during 
September and October, and they are then very crisp and 
tender, just right for table use, bi^t the crop will not be as 
large as when they are sown early. The soil best suited to 
the growth of the carrot is a deep, sandy loam, made rich 
by a liberal dressing of stable manure plowed under and 
a little fertilizer sown broadcast just before the sowing. 
The seed is sown in rows fifteen to eighteen inches 
apart, or in beds of three rows one foot apart and three 
feet between the beds, so that the horse cultivator may 
be run through them frequently. The plants are thinned 
out to two inches apart. The size most desired for table 
use is from one to two inches in diameter, which sell for 
50 to 75 cents per bushel. For stock feed they sell for 
from $10 to $15 per ton. 

Varieties. 

The variety most grown for stock feed and table use is 
the Dan vers Intermediate, and for the table alone Early 
Short-horn. 

Celery. 

This crop is not generally profitable except upon deep 
moist land like strong grass land or reclaimed swamps, 
though if the land is made very rich with a heavy dress- 
ing of stable manure it may be grown in a cool moist 
season upon a deep sandy loam. It is grown as a second 
crop following strawberries, potatoes, early beets, or 



228 The Small Country Place 

any other crop that is off the land before the first of 
August. It is often grown among onions, every fifth 
row among this crop is omitted when the seed is sown 
and later set with celery plants, or the seed is sown in 
the row. Plants are generally started in the green- 
house or frames, or sown in a sheltered place outside, 
about the first of April. The seed is very fine and 
requires only a very light covering, and the surface of 
the bed must not become dry until the seedlings become 
well rooted. This is prevented by covering the bed 
with a sheet of cheesecloth, which prevents the soil 
from being washed when watering, or by sifting over the 
seed a thin covering of fine sphagnum moss. When the 
seeds begin to germinate so as to slightly raise the cloth 
it is removed and the bed kept shaded for a day or two 
until the plants get well rooted. The seedling plants are 
transplanted, when the third leaf appears, two or 
three inches apart. 

For early market the plants are set in the field the 
last of May or early June, and for the late crop they 
may be set as late as August ist if the soil is rich and 
moist. In extremely dry weather, frequent cultivation 
must be given or water applied. Plants that are not 
growing as desired may often be started into vigorous 
growth by plowing a furrow away from each side, 
scattering a little nitrate of soda or fine poultry drop- 
pings into it and turning it back again. 

Celery is prepared for market by first blanching the 
stalks. This is done in two ways — by boards set up 
against each side of the rows and held in place by 
stakes, or by banking with soil. The latter method is 
thought to produce a better quality, but is much more 
expensive than the former. 

In banking with soil, the plants are grasped with both 
hands and drawn closely together while some fine dirt 



Market Gardening 229 

is packed about them, holding them in place until more 
soil can be banked against them. When properly 
blanched the plants are dug up, the roots cut off close 
up to the stalks, the outer leaves pulled off, and two or 
three plants tied together for a bunch. This is sold at 
from 75 cents to $2 per dozen bunches, depending upon 
the quality and supply. Immense quantities of celery 
are grown on the reclaimed meadows about Kalamazoo, 
Michigan, and in other similar soils, but the demand is 
increasing faster than the supply. 

Celery is stored in winter in cold cellars and in pits. 
Any cellar where the temperature can be kept nearly 
down to 32° will keep celery if properly packed. A 
celery "pit," a cheap structure, is made partly below 
ground by setting up posts about two feet high upon 
which a roof is placed; the sides are double boarded 
and the soil from the inside thrown out and used to 
bank the outside, thus making the inside walls three to 
four feet high. When the pit is ready to receive the 
celery the plants are dug, the outside leaves pulled off, 
and the plants then packed closely with moist soil about 
the roots. Success in storing celery depends much upon 
the skill of the grower in keeping a low even tempera- 
ture. As cold weather with danger of freezing comes on 
more covering may be needed over the roof and sides of 
the pit. Thermometers should be hung inside and out, 
and should be frequently consulted. At the North, 
celery must be in the pit in average seasons by Novem- 
ber 15, but one must be ready to put it in two weeks 
earlier should cold weather come on. When skilfully 
managed celery may be kept in a pit until April ist. 

Varieties. 

Among the leading varieties are the Golden Self- 
blanching, Grant Parcal, and Boston Market. The lat- 



230 The Small Country Place 

ter, while of the best quaUty, is rather difficult to grow, 
as it is subject to the celery leaf-blight. 

Sweet Corn. 

Sweet com is grown more as a farm-garden crop than 
as a market-garden crop. Only one crop can be grown on 
the land where corn is cultivated, as it takes nearly the 
entire season for it to grow to maturity. It makes a good 
crop with which to reseed land that has been long in 
cultivation, or to break up coarse land and fit it for 
market-garden crops. Sweet com is largely grown near 
canning factories, and the fodder is utilized in making 
milk. The early crop is generally the most profitable, 
and a warm southern exposure and a rich warm soil is 
necessary to produce this. The land should be plowed 
the fall before and again in the spring and thoroughly 
fitted. If planted very early, furrow out three feet each 
way, making the furrows rather deep. Then at the in- 
tersections of the furrows place one or two shovelfuls of 
fine heating horse manure. If this is very dry or the land 
is not decidedly moist, tread it down and cover with 
two or three inches of fine soil and plant six to eight 
kernels in each hill. Cover very lightly if the soil is wet, 
but an inch or more if dry, and press the soil firmly 
about the kernels. 

There is not much gained in very early planting 
unless the soil is well warmed by the sun or stable 
manure, but a crop may sometimes be planted as early 
as May ist at the North with the chance of its escaping 
late frosts, in which case it will be very profitable. A 
second planting should follow this in a week, which 
often will mature nearly as early as the first. 

Frequent cultivation must be given, and if the weeder 
is used several times after the cultivator the crop may 
be grown without the use of the hand-hoe. 



Market Gardening 231 

Varieties. 

Many varieties of sweet corn are found in the market 
but the one best known and in demand should be grown. 
Among the best are the Crosby, Excelsior, Country 
Gentleman, Golden Bantam, and Evergreen. 

Lettuce. 

This is a home-garden crop, yet is one that is largely 
grown for market the year around. From November 
to May at the North it comes from the greenhouses and 
frames, or from the South, where it may be grown out- 
side the year around. To keep up a supply of plants 
seeds must be sown every two or three weeks. 

The varieties most in demand are those that form a 
solid head like that of the cabbage, and to obtain this 
plants must have a space of from six to eight inches each 
way. They generally head better if transplanted once 
or twice. 

The crop is marketed in bushel boxes or sometimes 
for long-distance shipment in barrels, and sells at from 
25 cents per dozen during the summer to $1 and $1.50 
when the supply is scarce. 

Varieties. 

Among the best varieties are Big Boston, Black- 
seeded Tennis Ball, Salamander, Grand Rapids, and 
Hittinger. 

Melons. 

This crop is of but local interest, as it can only be 
successfully grown in favored regions. In almost all 
old settled sections of the country it is a very uncertain 
crop on account of blight and the attacks of insects. 
For the best results a rather thin new soil is needed, 
made rich with manure placed in the hill, which should 



232 The Small Country Place 

be raised a little above the level to carry off the surface 
water quickly. The seeds should not be planted until 
the ground is well warmed, in this section not until the 
last of May or early June. If grown in large areas the 
work may be done largely by the horse and the crop 
grown at small cost. 

Varieties. 

The varieties most grown are: Muskmelons — Rocky- 
ford, Paul Rese, Miller's Cream. Watermelons — Sweet- 
heart, Kolb's Gem, Alabama Sweet. 

Onions. 

If one has deep sandy loam free from stones, and not 
too full of weed seeds, this crop will be found profitable. 
For the best results the land should be plowed in the 
fall, and if a light dressing of manure be turned under 
it will insure early working in the spring. In the spring 
the land may either be plowed or deeply harrowed, ap- 
plying any good vegetable fertilizer at the rate of from 
one-half to one ton per acre. The land must be worked 
fine and mellow, and if there is any coarse material on 
the surface it should be raked off so as not to clog the 
seed-sower. The seed should be sown as early in the 
spring as possible. The cultivation required consists 
in running the wheel- or scuffie-hoe so frequently that 
no small weeds will become established between the 
rows, and in hand-pulling all weeds growing in the rows. 
Weeds can be most cheaply killed when they are just 
bursting through the soil. If they are brought to the 
surface at this time with the hoe or rake, or covered 
with a little soil, that is all that is needed. 

When the tops begin to turn yellow they should be 
pulled and thrown in thin windrows and frequently 
turned until dry. 



Market Gardening 233 

In very wet weather it is sometimes necessary to 
move the crop to some dry barn floor, shed or loft, for 
when new roots begin to form on mature bulbs it is very 
difficult to stop continued growth. To prepare for mar- 
ket the dry tops are cut off with scissors or sharp knives, 
the onions sorted, and put in sacks. The yield varies 
greatly under different conditions of soil and season, 
from 100 to 1000 bushels per acre being produced. 
Onions are not injured by light freezing and may be 
kept over winter in a cold, dry cellar or any cold, dry 
room that does not freeze. They are also kept by plac- 
ing in a cold loft, freezing them lightly and covering 
with hay, when they will remain frozen or thaw out 
very gradually, but should not be handled when frozen. 

Varieties. 

Among the varieties most grown are the Danvers Yel- 
low Globe, Red Wethersfield, Southport White Globe, 
Prize Taker. 

Peas. 

This is another crop adapted to the farm garden. It 
is generally grown on cheap land and with commercial 
fertilizer. The income from the crop is not large, but 
as it can be grown cheaply when it is harvested early 
there is a good profit from it for the time and money in- 
vested. Early, warm land sloping to the south, should 
be selected, and plowed in the fall and again in the 
spring, unless it be turf land, in which case the wheel- 
harrow run deeply will suffice, making it fine and mel- 
low as early as possible. The seed is better planted 
with a corn-planter or other seed drill, as the plants will 
then be in better line and more easily cultivated with the 
horse or hand wheel-hoe. The fertilizer can be drilled 
in with the seed with an attachment to the seed drill. 

As soon as the plants break through the ground a 



234 The Small Country Place 

cultivator with wings or a very small plow should be 
run between the rows, throwing a little soil over them, 
and then the weeder or rake run over all. This will 
kill all small weeds and level down the rows. In a few 
days or a week the weeder should be run again, on a 
bright drying day, then the winged cultivator or small 
plow, throwing fine soil close up to the plants. If after 
another week a more heavy furrow of soil be thrown 
up against the plants all of the weeds will be smothered 
so that no hand work will be needed unless it be to 
pull a few large weeds in the rows. 

Dwarf varieties that require no bushing are most 
grown, but the tall kinds will generally yield larger 
crops, though the expense of growing is greater. 

Wire poultry netting eighteen inches or two feet wide 
will be found very satisfactory for supporting the tall- 
growing sorts, and if taken from the stakes as soon as 
the crop is harvested, rolled up and put in a dry place 
until the next season, it will last a lifetime. Peas are 
marketed in bushel boxes and sell for from 50 cents to 
$2.50 per bushel, according to season and supply. 

Varieties. 

Among the best varieties are: Dwarf — Alaska, Nott's 
Excelsior, Surprise, Premium Gem, American Wonder. 
Tall — Champion of England, Stratagem, Telephone, 
White Marrowfat. 

Potatoes. 

The potato is properly a farm crop but is used by 
market gardeners as a rotation crop and to fit rough land 
for crops that require a line soil. Under the best con- 
ditions from 200 to 400 bushels are grown upon an acre, 
and when the work is largely done with the horse as it 
should be there may be considerable profit in the crop. 
The ideal conditions for its best growth are a deep, 



Market Gardening 235 

rather moist loam, well under drained, with a clover 
sod turned under in the fall and- shallow plowed 
or thoroughly harrowed in the spring. About ten 
bushels of seed per acre is planted, cut into pieces 
of one or two eyes, and the earlier this is planted 
after the ground will work up fine and mellow the 
better, as there will be less trouble from insects, and 
very early potatoes generally sell higher than the aver- 
age of the main crop which co«mes on later. For large 
areas the seed is planted and fertilizers distributed by 
the planter, of which there are many kinds that do good 
work. From one-half to one ton of high-grade potato 
fertilizer is used per acre, sowing one half with the seed 
and the balance when the plants are just breaking 
through the ground, and at the first cultivating. At 
this time a winged cultivator should be run between 
the rows, covering the plants and smothering all small 
weeds. In a day or two the weeder may be run and the 
field smoothed down, and again in a few days or a week 
the cultivator should be run followed by the weeder, 
when another lot of small weeds will be destroyed. The 
next cultivation should be done with the cultivator 
with winged teeth, or a small double-mouldboard plow 
or potato-hiller, throwing fine soil up close against the 
plants. If the cultivator is run between the rows once 
or twice after this to keep the soil fine and mellow, and 
the hiller once more, this will take care of all the weeds 
unless the land is very weedy. A large weed here and 
there may have to be pulled to prevent stocking the 
land with seed for the next season. 

When the potato-bugs appear the tops should be 
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, to 
kill the bugs and prevent the blight. A second and 
even a third spraying may be needed if the weather is 
favorable for the growth of bugs and blight. 



236 The Small Country Place 

When the tops have fallen down and begin to turn 
yellow, the crop may be dug and sold, or stored if one 
has a cool, dry place in which to put them, but they 
are as likely to keep well in the ground as in a moist, 
warm cellar. Where there is a tendency to decay, 
dusting with air-slacked lime or plaster to take up the 
moisture will often stop this tendency. For digging 
large crops the potato-digger will be found very eco- 
nomical, though it requires a very heavy team to draw 
it, especially if the ground is moist and heavy. They 
should be dug in bright, sunny weather, but not put into 
bins until well cooled off. Potatoes keep best at a tem- 
perature of 40°. A continued temperature of t,^° to 35° 
often chills the potato so that they become sweet and 
do not sell as readily as when kept at a higher temper- 
ature. The price this crop sells for varies from 50 cents 
to $1.50 per bushel, the average for New England being 

about 80 cents. j. . . 

Varieties. 

Among the standard kinds are the following in order 
of earliness: Irish Cobbler, Bouvee, Beauty of Hebron, 
Early Ohio, Rural New Yorker, Carmans No. i. 

Rhubarb. 

This is an early and often a profitable crop on a warm, 
rich soil with a southern exposure, and one that may be 
forced by placing sash over the beds in the spring or 
in the winter by putting the roots into a warm cellar — 
a single old plant will often make a dozen new ones. 
To obtain large stalks, roots containing one or two buds 
(Fig. 34), are set out in the spring or early summer 
and kept growing all summer, and in the fall the ground 
is covered with six to eight inches of stable manure to 
prevent deep freezing. In the spring the coarsest of 
this should be removed and the finer spaded in about ^ 
the roots on a bright, sunny day. This will cause an 



Market Gardening 237 

early start and rapid growth, and the early out-door 
crop often sells for from five to ten cents per pound. 

This crop may be forced under the benches of a 
greenhouse or in a warm house or stable cellar. Strong 
young plants of two to three buds are dug just before 
the ground freezes and with a little soil upon them 
packed upon the north side of a wall or shed to freeze. 
After freezing for a few weeks they are packed closely 
under the bench, in the cold frame, or in the cellar with 
a little soil about them, where they are to be forced. 
A temperature of about 40° should be kept up at first, 
gradually increasing it until it runs to about 50° at 
night and 60° to 70° during the day. No light is 
needed, the stalks being longer and of a more delicate 
color in darkness than in light. Rhubarb is sold by the 
pound, in some markets, tied in one, two and three 
pound bunches, but in others it is sold loosely in bushel 

boxes. „ 

Squashes. 

Squashes, like melons, require a great deal of heat 
but are not as much subject to disease as the latter. 
It is a sort of chance crop, for if planted very early it is 
often destroyed by bugs or maggots at the roots, or if 
planted late to escape these pests the crop is often cut 
off by frosts or fails to ripen so as to keep well. It is a 
crop that can be cheaply grown, and when it does escape 
the many chances it is often a very profitable one. For 
the best results newly turned over turf land is generally 
selected. It is deeply plowed, worked very fine and 
mellow, and furrowed in squares 6x6 feet. Manure or 
fertilizer is placed at the intersections and thoroughly 
worked in, raising the hill a few inches above the level 
that surface water may run off quickly. From five to 
ten seeds are planted in each hill from the ist to the 
loth of June for New England, covering them one- 



238 The Small Country Place 

fourth inch deep in moist land and one-half inch if the 
soil is thin and dry. As soon as the seeds break through 
the ground the plants should be dusted thoroughly with 
plaster with a little Paris green in it to keep off the 
insects, striped beetles and black squash-bugs. The 
winged cultivator should be put through the rows diag- 
onally, throwing the soil up close to the plants. As soon 
as the insects are through working all weak plants are 
pulled out, leaving three in each hill. The second cul- 
tivation may be with the plow lengthwise of the rows, 
throwing more soil against the plants, and the third also 
with the plow, throwing up more soil. If the land is 
very weedy a little hand hoeing may be needed just 
about the hills, and before the plants get to running 
much the cultivator should be run diagonally again, 
and possibly lengthwise between, to kill small weeds 
and keep the soil well stirred. No more care will be 
needed unless it be to pull a few large weeds in the hills 
that may have escaped the cultivator. 

Squashes must be harvested before frosty weather, as 
even a temperature just above freezing may injure their 
keeping qualities. When the danger of frost is pro- 
nounced, a temperature of 45° at 5 p.m. and going 
down, squashes are generally thrown in piles, if they 
cannot be carted to the bam or shed, and covered with 
the vines, and the following day carted to some place 
where they may lie in the sun during the day and be 
covered at night. 

When the ripening process in the sun is completed 
or danger of freezing is past, they are placed in a dry, 
warm shed, loft or cellar. They will keep best at a 
temperature of 52° and a very dry atmosphere in a dry 
shed, squash house, chamber, or furnace cellar. 

The crop is sold in barrels or bushel boxes, the price 
ranging from one-half cent to two cents per pound. 



Market Gardening 239 

Varieties. 

Among the best varieties for market and home use 
are: DeHcious, Hubbard, Golden Hubbard, Boston 
Marrow, and Essex. 

Tomatoes. 

This is a market-garden, a farm-garden and a can- 
ning crop. It is grown largely to supply city markets, 
and in some sections in large areas to supply canneries. 
For the best results land upon which some well manured 
crop was grown the previous season is selected. It is 
plowed in the fall and again in the spring, and made 
ready for the plants from May i to June i, according to 
location. The land is generally furrowed or marked 
out 3x5 to 4x6 feet, according to soil and variety 
grown. 

Plants for the early crop are grown under glass, 
started from seed from February to April i, and trans- 
planted at least twice until they occupy a space 6x6 
inches in the bed. When the plants are ready for setting 
out a small amount of fertilizer is scattered about each 
hill, a spadeful of soil taken out, the plant taken up with 
a spade, dropped into the hole, and soil pressed firmly 
about the roots. A moist day should be selected if 
possible or the plants set out from 4 to 6 p.m., that they 
may have the night in which to recover from the effects 
of transplanting. For a few days before moving water 
should be withheld from the plants to cause them to 
harden and turn a little yellow, but the bed should be 
thoroughly wet down a few hours before the plants are 
taken up, to cause the soil to adhere to the roots. 
Thorough cultivation should be kept up both ways 
between the plants with the horse as long as the plants 
stand upright, and after they begin to fall down large 
weeds must be hand pulled. 



240 The Small Country Place 

When sold to canneries the crop is harvested in 
bushel boxes and sent without much packing, but for 
city markets it is carefully wiped, sorted and packed 
in layers the stem end down, thus presenting a beauti- 
ful appearance. Prices vary according to variety and 
season from 50 cents to $2 or more per bushel. Cannery 
prices are made for the season and range from 30 cents 
to 70 cents per bushel. 

Varieties. 

Among the best varieties are the Acme, Beauty, Para- 
gon, New Stone, Dwarf Champion, and Dwarf Stone. 

Turnips. 

This is a cheap crop generally grown on land cleared 
of other crops late in the season. In good soil the 
EngUsh varieties will mature when the seed is sown as 
late as the 15th of August. It may be planted after 
beets, pea,s, early sweet corn, cabbages, strawberries, 
etc., and with little or no labor large crops may be 
produced which are valuable for stock and poultry 
feed, and to a Umited extent for table use. They do 
best when sown in drills but good crops are often 
grown when sown broadcast. Superphosphate is espe- 
cially valuable for the crop. The Swede, French and 
Ruta Baga turnips require a longer season than the 
English varieties. The seeds must be sown as soon as 
July I, more cultivation given, and the plants thinned 
to four to six inches apart in the drill. The latter are 
grown for cattle and sheep, and to a limited extent for 
table use. 

Varieties. 

Among the best English varieties are White Milan, 
White Egg, White-top Strap-leaf, and Red-top Strap- 
leaf. 



CHAPTER XII 



Poultry Keeping 



POULTRY, fruit growing and market gardening 
is one of the best combinations for earning a 
living on a small place in the country. All 
three require close and constant attention. Some one 
must be at home all the time that the work be promptly 
done when needed, as a little neglect at the critical time 
may result in great loss with either. 

The routine work of fruit growing and market gar- 
dening was discussed in previous chapters and it re- 
mains for us in this chapter to outline the work of 
poultry growing. 

The poultry interest of the country is greater than 
that of any other one branch of agriculture, the prod- 
ucts amounting in a single year to over $360,000,000. 
It has grown to this vast volume in a comparatively 
short time, and there is hardly a country home where 
hens, ducks, geese, or pigeons are not kept. Many 
families produce their own supply of eggs and poultry, 
others pay their grocery bills from the products of the 
poultry yard, and still others obtain their entire sup- 
port from their poultry; and there are large establish- 
ments where thousands of fowls are kept and large 
capital is invested in the equipment of extensive poul- 
try houses and yards. 

A noticeable feature of the country poultry yard are the 
fruit trees planted in it for the shelter of the fowls and 
the production of large fruit (Fig. 61), raspberries, black- 
16 241 



242 



The Small Country Place 



berries and even grapes and asparagus. Poultry houses 
and yards serve as a good location for rotation of crops. 
Many yards may be found where small colony houses 




"wm 




Fig. 80 — Movable Summer Colony-House for Fifteen Hens ; -Open View. 

(Figs. 80, 81) and frames are moved to new locations 
every week, and where after a time the land covered 
by them is plowed up and produces famous yields of 




Fig. 81 — Movable i-^uniiuer Loiony-liouse for l* ifteen Hens; Closed \iew. 

almost all farm and garden crops. The droppings, 
too, of the fowls, which should be frequently gathered 
from under the roosts, are especially rich in soluble 
nitrogen and other valuable elements, and are used in 
place of quick-acting commercial fertilizers. 



Poultry Keeping 



The Location. 



243 



A light sandy soil with a southern exposure well 
sheltered from the north and west is generally selected 
for poultry, but the most important condition is a 
dry soil and quick surface drainage. Very steep hilly 
land should be avoided, as in heavy showers the soil is 
often badly washed and houses and yards much in- 
jured. Stony land and land covered with brush may be 
used as ranges, but if fruit trees are to be planted the 




Fig. 82 — Poultry in the Ptaspberry Patch. 

brush must be first destroyed by digging out or fre- 
quent cutting and close feeding by the fowls. Fruit 
planted in poultry yards m^ust be adapted to the soil 
occupied. Thus, peaches must be planted on rather 
light soil well elevated, with somewhat of a northern 
or western exposure. Plums may be grown under 
similar conditions, doing well on a heavier soil if in full 
exposure to sunlight and air. The apple and pear suc- 
ceed upon any good grass land, but it must be well 
underdrained, while the quince will grow in a very moist 
soil or one like that suited to the apple and pear. Rasp- 



244 The Small Country Place 

berries may be grown upon almost any kind of soil in 
the poultry yard (Fig. 82), if not too wet, but the 
plants must be allowed to reach mature growth before 
the fowls are let in, and during the early summer they 
must not be allowed to feed on the new canes so as to 
injure them. With the rapid growth of weeds and 
other plants in the rich soil of the poultry yard this is 
not likely to happen, unless unusually large numbers of 
fowls are kept in small enclosures. 

The business of poultry growing may be started 
from very small beginnings. A few settings of eggs 
and some hens bought in the spring or borrowed from 
a neighbor may serve as a nucleus. From each setting 
with close attention and care one may expect ten to 
twelve chicks and a small flock may be almost entirely 
supported from the waste of the table and the products 
of the garden. 

One may start in this business in a more extensive 
way by the purchase of a small flock or the use of the 
incubator. If one has a warm, dry cellar or small room 
where the temperature runs evenly, and has the time to 
watch it closely until he becomes skilled in running it, 
the 50, 100, 200 or more egg incubators will give a 
larger start, but the first expense for incubator and 
feed for the chicks will be considerable before any 
income may be expected from broilers, or poultry. One 
should begin and proceed in a moderate way until all 
the details of the business are well understood, for few 
lines of business require such exact knowledge and 
prompt treatment as poultry keeping. 

Poultry Houses. 

The first move in poultry raising after the location 
has been decided upon is the kind and number of houses 
required. Expensive houses are not needed but they 



Poultry Keeping 



245 



must be warm in winter, yet well ventilated. A barn- 
or shed-cellar opening to the south makes an ideal 
place for small flocks of fowls, but it must be dry. It 
may be kept open in all but stormy weather, if a warm 
place is provided for the fowls at night or in extremely 
cold weather. Curtains of burlap or loosely woven 
cloth will answer the purpose of glass for doors or win- 
dows in houses that are closely built. 




Fig. 83 — A Modern Poultry House with Scratching Shed 
Between Two Pens. 

Of special houses there are two or three types in gen- 
eral use — the colony house where twenty to fifty fowls 
are kept (a very satisfactory colony is shown in Fig. 
83), the long range of houses where the same num- 
ber are kept in separate pens, and the large, high and 
well lighted house where several hundred are kept 
together. The small colony house is most cheaply built 
from the fact that light and cheap building" material 
may be used, but it is exposed to the weather on all 
four sides and therefore needs the best possible protec- 



246 The Small Country Place 

tion from cold. The long range of houses with many- 
pens joined is also an economical house to build, as the 
pens or sections are divided by wire netting or curtains, 
thus reducing the amount of wall space for each pen. 
This house also has the advantage that in caring for the 
fowls in stormy or cold weather one can pass from pen 
to pen without going out of doors. The main advan- 
tage of the large house with a large number of fowls 
in one room is in the feeding and care, especialh^ where 
the dry mash system is practised. Here dry food may 
be placed in slatted troughs, where all the fowls may 
help themselves. Enough dry grain may be scattered 
in the litter for all at once, and a sufficient supply of 
water be provided. Then the studs being high there is 
a better circulation of air than there is in smaller 
buildings. 

Building the Houses. ' 

At the North poultry houses must be built so as to be 
warm in the coldest weather, yet the fowls do much 
better if allowed to run a part of each day in a dry 
cold place where they must scratch to keep warm. 
In the living room the temperature should range from 
40° to 60°, according to whether the sun shines or not, 
but water should not freeze much during the night. 
A warm house is cheaply obtained by using lining paper 
over rough boards. Many people put building paper on 
the sides of their hen houses, but leave the spaces be- 
tween the rafters without the paper, and when cold 
weather comes on the cold air drops down from these 
surfaces and the houses are damp and cold. The soil, 
too, close up to the houses freezes and the frost works 
in under the building and we have a cold, damp floor for 
the fowls. To prevent this a space three or four feet 
from the walls of the building must be covered with 



OULTRY 



Keeping 247 



from six inches to a foot of hay, straw or leaves to keep 
frost from working in through the soil. For inside 
covering ordinary building paper or tarred paper may 
be used and is comparatively inexpensive, but the 
heavier roofing papers like rubberoid, f^intcoat, amelite, 
paroid, etc., are more economical for the roofs and out- 
side walls. These if painted with tar or asphalt make 
very durable roofs. Shingles with building paper under 
them make a very warm and desirable covering for 
either roofs or sides of poultry houses. 

Care of the Fowls. 

Cleanliness and an abundance of light, fresh air and 
water are the most important requirements for success- 
ful poultry keeping, but closely following these an 
abundance and variety of food must be given with a 
good place for exercise and a warm place in which to 
roost in very cold weather. 

The houses should be frequently cleaned out, and the 
roosts or droppings boards be cleaned every two or three 
days if a large number of fowls are kept. vScattering a 
little dry dust like sifted coal ashes or land plaster over 
the droppings will make this cleaning unnecessary more 
frequently than once or twice a week unless the fowls 
get into the droppings and scratch them about. The 
droppings should be placed in barrels and kept perfectly 
dry until sold or put upon the land. A coating of lime 
wash should be put over the entire inner surface of the 
house two or three times every year, adding a little 
dissolved copper sulphate and kerosene to prevent the 
germs of disease and lice and mites from increasing. An 
ounce of the copper sulphate dissolved in hot water 
and a half pint of kerosene will be sufficient for eight 
to ten quarts of wash. 



248 



The Small Country Place 



Raising Chickens. 

For the most profit in this work one must make a 
start early in the season. A warm house or open cellar 
is a necessity. Eggs must be set under hens or put into 
the incubator in March or earlier, and to produce fertile 
eggs, which is the chief difficulty at this season of the 
year, the hens must have a great variety of food and 

be allowed to run outside 
whenever the weather is 
favorable. 

It is difficult to find 
hens that want to set at 
this time, but with the in- 
cubator (Fig. 84) one is 
more or less independent 
of this condition. 

If hens are used, they 
should be set in a room or 
space where other hens 
will not interfere with 
them. A large number 
may be kept in one room 
if each has a separate box that may be kept closed 
except at such times as they are to be let out for 
water and feed. An old strawberry crate makes 
a good box for the nest. As soon as the eggs begin 
to hatch the chicks should be removed from each 
hen and taken to some place beyond the hearing of 
the other setting hens. A large number may be given 
to the hens which are to take care of them (twenty 
or even thirty chicks may be taken care of by one 
hen if in a warm and roomy place), or the chickens 
may be placed in brooders (Fig. 85) in which artificial 
heat is supplied by a lamp or in large brooder heated by 




Fig. 84 — A Model Incubator ; One of 
the Necessities for Profitable Poul- 
try Raising. 



Poultry Keeping 



249 




steam or hot-water pipes. There are many different 
kinds of small brooders many of which are very satis- 
factory, or one may make a simple one that will do very 
satisfactory work, the heat coming from a kerosene 
lamp supplied with the Trench or some other burner, 
the flame of which will not increase in size as the lamp 
and surroundings rise in temperature. A regular, even 
temperature must be kept up both in incubator and 
brooder. 

For success 
with the incu- 
bator one needs 
a warm and 
fairly dry cellar, 
with an even 
temperature, 
that the heat 
and moisture in 
the hatching 
chamber may be kept at the required point. Success in 
running these "wooden hens" depends much upon how 
skilfully one can run the lamp, regulate the moisture, 
and care for the other parts of the machine. This must 
be learned with each kind of incubator, many of which 
are to be found in the market. Full directions accom- 
pany each machine and should be carefully followed. 
The one shown in the picture is largely and successfully 
in use. As with the hen the chicks should be removed 
from the incubator as soon as the}^ hatch and carefully 
protected in the brooder. 

Feed for Chicks. 

No food need be given the chicks the first twenty-four 
hours, but fresh water should be before them in very 
shallow pans or watering fountains where they cannot 



¥ic,. 85 — -A Model Brooder, where the Cliickens 
are Kept After Bein? Taken from Incubator. 



250 The Small Country Place 

get themselves wet. Dry feed should be given them for 
some time, some poultrymen even feeding only dry feed 
at all times. Chick food, a mixture of cracked grain, 
com, oatmeal, and small seeds, can be had at all supply 
stores and is safe to use, but expensive; or a mixture of 
fine cracked com, oatmeal, wheat shorts, etc., may be 
fed. Where but few chicks are kept bread crumbs will 
answer very well for the first few days. Fresh and clean 
water should be before them at all times, as well as fine 
sharp sand or grit, and milk will supply the animal food 
needed. 

There is much variation in the practice of different 
poultrymen as to feed, some giving each day a mash of 
soft food made of a mixture of ground grains, potatoes, 
scraps, and other materials, while others feed only dry 
feed. The latter practice seems to be growing; it is a 
safe one to follow, and reduces the labor in caring for 
the flock to the minimum. Young chicks should be fed 
what they will eat up clean three or four times each 
day until they can run about vigorously, when three 
times and finally twice a day, will be sufficient. Care 
must be taken that they have warm and clean quarters, 
especially at night. If allowed to huddle together, as 
they are inclined to do, their lodging place soon becomes 
foul and unhealthy. Early hatched chickens, those 
that come out in March and April, will be large enough 
to sell as broilers in June and July, and will often sell 
at from 30 cents to 50 cents per pound, according to the 
supply and quality, thus giving some income from the 
investment and reducing the cost of keeping a large 
flock of rapidly growing fowls. After the season for 
broilers at good prices is past, it is the best practice to 
separate the cockerels from the pullets and fatten them 
as quickly as possible for poultry, though, when care- 



Poultry Keeping 251 

fully fed, poultry of larger size will often sell profitably 
during the fall and early winter. 

During the summer chickens do best if allowed full 
freedom, and by growing such crops as asparagus, 
(Fig. 86), fruit trees and the bush fruits only, a full 
range may be given by keeping them in small colony 
houses (Figs. 80, 81) at night. They cannot be given 
range where succulent market-garden crops are grown 
unless these crops are fenced in. 




1 



Fig. 86 — Poultry in the Asparagus Field. 

Among the fruits mentioned fowls will destroy all 
kinds of insects, will more or less cultivate the ground, 
and add much to the fertility of the soil. If the colony 
houses are placed on open land and are frequently 
moved, as they should be, areas sufficiently large for 
cultivation would soon be covered, and very large crops 
of vegetables or fruits could be grown on this in rotation. 
If the colony houses are large they should be built on 
shoes or skids, so as to be moved with horses. In loca- 
tions at some distance from the main building a sharp 



252 The Small Country Place 

watch must be kept for hawks, crows, owls, skunks, 
weasels and stray cats, to see that the chickens are not 
taken during the day and have a safe place at night. 

Production of Eggs. 

For the production of eggs even more care is required 
than for the production of poultry. In preparing the 
pullets for laying the cockerels should be removed from 
the pens except one to each twelve to fifteen pullets. 
If possible give them full range and feed a variety of 
grains, scraps, and fresh bone, with an abundance of 
grit, oyster shells, and charcoal where they can readily 
get at it. Light, dry and airy quarters must be pro- 
vided and kept scrupulously clean. If the pullets are 
kept in close quarters fresh green feed of some kind, 
grass, weeds, cabbage, or other wastes from the garden 
must be supplied, and some kind of litter on the floor in 
which whole grains may be scattered. 

As with the production of poultry, the practice of 
feeding the dry or wet mash varies, with perhaps the 
advantage in favor of the former. The dry mash is 
made by mixing ground oats, cornmeal, shorts, gluten 
meal, and scraps in equal quantities and placing this 
mixture in slatted troughs or feeders where the fowls 
can get at it at all times. 

The wet mash is made of more or less of the above 
grains often using boiled potatoes, beets, carrots, etc., 
with the mixture. As far as careful comparison of the 
two methods has been made, the dry mash has given 
the best results especially in houses inclined to be 
moist, and the labor is greatly reduced. The time of 
feeding the wet mash varies, too, with many, the most 
general practice being to feed hot mash in the morning. 
But the results of some careful experiments made by 
experiment stations indicate that the fowls assimilate 



Poultry Keeping 253 

more of the food when the hot mash is fed just before 
they go upon the roost at night. Scraps, if not fed in 
the mash, should be given two or three times a week or 
be kept in slatted troughs all the time, as should be 
fresh cut bone and oyster shells. An abundance of fine 
gravel, or grit and charcoal should also be supplied. 

Roosts. 

Roosts should not be placed so high that the heavy 
birds will find it difficult to get upon them. If the 
roosts are placed high, there should be lower poles upon 
which such fowls can easily reach the higher. Round 
poles not over two and one-half inches in diameter are 
best, as the fowls can hold themselves firmly upon 
them. Insects are supposed not to thrive upon sassa- 
fras and sweet birch poles, and where these woods are 
available they should be used, but any kind of wood 
will do if frequently painted over with kerosene with a 
Httle linseed oil in it. The linseed oil does not evaporate 
but hardens upon the poles, and when it comes in contact 
with the insects destroys them and fills up the crevices 
in w^hich they hide. In very cold houses curtained 
roosting places are often arranged. The curtains of 
burlap may be thrown up in the morning and dropped 
at night, or the fowls soon learn to go under them. 

Nests. 

Nests for laying hens should be in some secluded 
place, and are frequently located under the roosts. 
This, however, is not a good place unless great care is 
taken to clean out often and whitewash with a mixture 
containing kerosene. If a passageway is made through 
a house, outside the pens, and raised a foot or two above 
the level of the floor, nests may be located under the 
passageway floor and the eggs taken out through small 



254 '^^^ Small Country Place 

scuttles. When the nests are in some seclusion like the 
above the fowls are less liable to eat their eggs or break 
them by two or three hens getting into one nest. 

Breeds of Poultry. 

The value of any breed depends much upon the care 
exercised in selecting the breeding stock. Thus a strain 
of barred Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, or Wyan- 
dotts, may be built up, remarkable for their laying quali- 
ties; another for early maturity as broilers, while another 
may develop large size for poultry. So, too, by neglect 
a great laying strain may soon become poor layers or 
slow in maturing. No breed, perhaps, can combine 
all the desirable qualities, but it should be the aim of 
every grower to select for breeding those fowls that 
possess the most desirable qualities. In every flock 
there will be chickens that from the first are larger and 
more vigorous than others. These should be carefully 
removed and given especial attention, with the aim to 
produce large fowls. Selection of fowls for laying is 
more difficult, but if the flock is not too large we may 
select those that begin laying early, and by trap nests 
may determine the number of eggs laid by each one. 
When it is determined that certain fowls are more pro- 
lific layers than others, and of larger size, or more per- 
fectly marked, they should be marked or separated so 
that when the breeding season comes on their eggs may 
be utilized. 

The eggs of the different breeds as well as those of the 
same breed vary much in size and color, and attention 
should be given to this point, for one market prefers a 
white egg while in another the dark egg is in demand. 
If this process of selection is carried on skilfully for a 
few years pedigree stock of high character will be the 
result. The breeds most in use in Eastern United 



Poultry Keeping 



^55 



States are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandotts, Rhode Island 
Reds, and Leghorns. The first are a good all-purpose 
fowl, being good layers, maturing early, making good 
broilers, and when mature dressing to weigh from five 
to ten pounds. The Wyandotts and Rhode Island 
Reds are of nearly the same size as the Plymouth 
Rocks, and may be equal to the latter as layers, 
broilers or poultry, but perhaps not quite so well fixed 




Fig. 87— a Pigeon Loft. 

in character. As egg producers the Leghorns and 
Rhode Island Reds seem to have the best reputation. 
The Leghorns, however, are small and perhaps not 
quite as hardy. White fowls — White Wyandotts, White 
Plymouth Rocks, White Leghorns, etc., are very popular, 
but possess no peculiar merits above other breeds. 

Pigeons. 
A branch of the poultry business that has come into 
prominence within a few years is pigeon or squab rais- 



256 The Small Country Place 

ing. Our domestic pigeon breeds very rapidly and from 
a single pair one may in a year or two produce a large 
flock. They occupy but a small space, being generally 
kept in lofts (Fig. 87) or other out-of-the-way places, 
or in small houses like the colony houses for hens, with a 
flying yard attached. Close attention must be given 
them during their nesting season, their quarters must be 
kept neat and clean, fresh food and water must be 
supplied. The young birds are killed for market about 
the time they begin to fly and are sold undressed, bring- 
ing from 25 to 50 cents per pair while fancy birds for 
breeding purposes sometimes sell for as many dollars. 

For further details as to poultry and its care the 
reader is referred to the Reports of the Department of 
Agriculture at Washington and those of the State Ex- 
periment Stations, notably those of Maine, Massachu- 
setts, and Rhode Island. 



CHAPTER XIII 



Dairying, The Family Horse, and Bees 

THE country home is incomplete without one or 
more cows. An abundance of milk and cream 
produced by one good cow will supply a large 
amount of the nourishment needed for the family, 
especially where there are children (as there should be 
in every country home), and the cost of keeping need 
be very slight if one has a little land for a garden and 
pasture, or upon which to grow fodder crops. The 
value of the product of a good cow will vary from $50 
to $100 per year, and the cost of keeping, not counting 
the value of time in caring for her, need not be more 
than from $30 to $50 or $20 to $30 besides the grain 
purchased. (Fig. 88.) 

When fed upon rich, well cured fodder, like clover, 
alfalfa, corn fodder, or well matured ensilage, and good 
pasturage in summer, cows will need but little grain, 
though a limited amount may be profitably fed. 

For the best success the cow stable should be dry and 
airy, with an abundance of sunlight. For a single cow 
a box stall will be more comfortable, but it will require 
more labor to keep it clean than if the animal was tied 
to a stanchion. Some sort of a rack should be arranged 
to keep the hay from being trampled under foot, but the 
bottom of the crib should be on a level with the plat- 
form upon which the cow stands so as to be easily 
cleaned out. Cows may be kept in pasture from about 
May 10 to October 15, and south much longer. Where 
17 257 



258 The Small Country Place 

the area of pasture is small, tying to a bar or tethering- 
pole will be found economical. 

When feed is short in the pasture, cornstalks, cab- 
bage leaves, small squashes, small potatoes, apples, and 
other wastes from the garden will help out the food 
supply, or small patches of oats and rye, fodder corn, 
peas and barley, etc., may be sown at intervals of a 
week or two up to August i. The grain ration required 
to supplement the fodder must vary with the quality 
of this food. For the production of milk a mixture of 




Fig. 88 — The Family Cow. Even the Children can care for it. 

equal parts of shorts, gluten meal and a little cornmeal 
or cottonseed makes a good feed, using from one to five 
pounds per day according to the richness of the fodder 
used. Fresh, clean and pure water is as important for 
the animals on the farm as for the family in the house 
who consume their products. 

Milking. 
With a gentle cow that milks easily any member of 
the family may do the milking. Even the children 
from ten to fifteen years old may do much of this work. 
The process is very simple but requires considerable 
strength of the hand and wrist. 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 259 

Before milking- the udder and sides of the cow should 
be brushed and wiped clean and if very much soiled be 
w^ashed and wiped dry, so that no dirt may fall into the 
pail. 

The pail is held between the knees, one front and the 
opposite rear teat being grasped by the right and left 
hand respectively. The thumb and forefinger are closed 
so that the milk in the teat cannot flow back into the 
bag, and the milk is forced out by the three lower fingers. 
A firm, even pressure must be given and the milk drawn 
out as rapidly as possible, the last drop being secured if 
it can be done without spending too much time in 
stripping. 

Keeping the Milk. 

As soon as drawn the milk should be removed from 
the stable, carefully strained through the fine strainer 
of the pail and two or three thicknesses of strainer cloth 
or cottonwool to remove all particles of foreign matter 
that may have fallen in during the milking. After strain- 
ing, the milk should be cooled of the animal heat as 
quickly as possible in open pans in a refrigerator, in 
deep cans in a tank of ice, or in cans suspended in a cold 
well. 

Breeds. 

For ordinary family use or dairy purposes it matters 
little what breed is kept, as good and profitable animals 
may be found among all breeds. Those most largely in 
use for the production of cream and butter are the Jer- 
seys and Guernseys, while for a large supply of milk the 
Holstein and Ayrshires are much in favor. 

As with poultry, the value of any breed for special 
products depends much upon the strain, but perhaps in 
a lesser degree, for the good qualities are not so quickly 
and certainly transmitted and controlled. Thorough- 



26o The Small Country Place 

bred stock is much sought by the milk and butter pro- 
ducer, and while the average registered stock is gener- 
ally better than that unregistered there are many noted 
animals that are not even "grades" unless a long dis- 
tance awa}^ from that which is registered. 

Dairying. 

Where one has large areas of land in pasture and 
suitable for the production of fodder crops, and suitable 
buildings, the production of cream and milk for cream- 
eries or local or city markets may be profitably carried 
on. As with the single cow, one must have light, warm 
and well-aired buildings, with adequate space for storing 
the needed fodder, and grain, and a receptacle for the 
manure where the gases cannot rise into the space occu- 
pied by the cows. 

A cellar opening on one side on the level with the 
surrounding land, well drained and with windows on 
at least two opposite sides, is all right for the manure 
if an abundance of absorbents is used, the windows kept 
open except in extremely cold weather, and the cellar 
cleaned out at least twice each year. A better arrange- 
ment, however, is where the cattle are kept in a shed 
separate from the main barn where the fodder is kept, 
and where the manure can be carried outside and 
dumped upon a cemented platform, to be carried to the 
fields before a large amount accumulates. If possible 
the foundation gutters, platforms, cribs, etc., should be 
of concrete, so that they may be cleaned and washed 
frequently with the least possible labor. 

At the present high price of grain there can be but 
little if any profit in making milk at contractor's prices 
unless one can grow cheaply the necessary fodder and 
at least a part of the grain. The hay crop is very expen- 
sive and a cheaper fodder is found in the corn crop put 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 261 

into the silo. By planting this crop in rich, warm soil 
early in the season, the ears of even some late varieties 
will mature and if cut up when the kernels are Avell 
glazed, and put into the silo, a rich food is produced 
that is much better than the ordinary green fodder that 
is generally put into the silos and requires but little 
grain to supplement it. Matured corn may be grown 
upon good corn land, at a considerable profit, if the work 
is done cheaply with the corn-planter, weeder, and cul- 
tivator. At least $10 to $15 per acre net profit may be 
realized after paying all cost of labor, fertilizers, seed, 
etc., and our Eastern farmers should grow more of the 
grain they consume and thus keep their money at home. 
"A penny saved in this way is twice earned. " 

The Tie-up. 

There are many kinds of tie-up for cows and each has 
its ardent supporters. The chain tie sliding up and 
down upon a stanchion post is perhaps most generally 
in use. It is inexpensive and allows much freedom to 
the animal, but each dairyman should adopt the one 
best suited to his stable. 

The Milk Supply. 

One of the great problems in producing milk for 
large contractors or for the milk-route, is to keep up a 
regular supply during the changing seasons of the year. 
Thus, for the family supply two cows must be kept, one 
to come in in the fall and another to give milk while 
this one is dry. Or one must sell when the milk supply 
becomes short and buy a fresh one. With large dairies 
frequent changes must be made, or surplus cows be 
kept, to maintain this supply. There are always good 
cows to be found in the market and one who is skilled in 
the points of a good cow may keep up the supply by 



262 The Small Country Place 

buying and selling, but it will be safer for the amateur 
to keep good cows over, having several surplus ones on 
hand, and raise the young females of those which have 
proved the most valuable. 

Keeping Up the Standard. 

The modern milk market demands milk of a certain 
standard as to quality, solids, and freedom from bac- 
teria, unpleasant taste, and odors. 

The percentage of solids in milk of different animals 
varies much, and it is conceded that this percentage 
cannot be materially changed by the food given; there- 
fore if one is making milk below the standard he must 
add to his herd cows that produce a higher standard of 
milk. This necessitates the testing of the milk of all of 
the members of a herd in order to know which are giv- 
ing poor milk, which is done at little or no expense 
by the experiment stations and most of the milk 
contractors. 

Standard of Purity. 

The boards of health of States and large cities are 
demanding milk for the people free from unhealthful or 
undesirable foreign matter — i.e., free from foul odors, 
and the various bacteria or germs of disease and decay. 
To secure this careful inspection is made by the boards of 
health and by the contractors, thus necessitating greater 
cleanliness and care on the part of the dairyman in the 
production and care of his milk. 

The greatest profit is made by milk producers who 
peddle their milk in villages and small cities, by which 
means they get the full retail price. Milk is sold to the 
large contractors for from four cents to five cents per 
quart, while the retailer gets from his customers six 
cents to eight cents per quart, thus realizing from two 
cents to four cents for the labor of delivering. One 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 263 

great advantage of retailing in this way to one also en- 
gaged in growing vegetables and fruit, is that these prod- 
ucts may also be sold on the same route. 

Raising Calves. 

For the past quarter of a century raising calves has 
been on the decline in many dairying sections, this being 
more largely done in districts outside the milk produc- 
ing limits and the cows shipped to dairying places. 
With the increasing prices of all dairy products there 
should be some profit in raising the female calves of our 
best cows, even by the milk producer, and at the same 
time our herds would be greatly improved thereby. 

The labor of rearing calves by hand, as must largely 
be done with the present price of whole milk, is consid- 
erable, but the cost of feed for the first two years is 
comparatively small and a good two- or three-year-old 
will often sell for from $30 to $50, according to her 
promise. This work should be done for the pleasure of 
it, as well as for the profit. The young members of the 
family will take great interest in the "Bossies," and 
may help in the feeding, and the calves soon become 
great pets and playmates when properly handled. By 
careful selection of the stock from which " Bossy " comes 
a higher standard will soon be established, and many a 
fine herd has been built up from a single high-grade 
animal. When one can obtain skim milk, this with the 
addition of a little well-cooked ** fancy middlings," or 
linseed meal, will make a good food for several months. 
If skim milk is not obtainable, a porridge made of the 
above meals or some of the calf foods will keep the 
calves in good growing condition. 

If reared during the winter they are ready to go to 
pasture in the spring, when they will require little or no 
care for about six months. 



264 The Small Country Place 

During the first winter after coming from pasture 
they should be fed fine, tender hay, rowen, or clover 
much of the time, with now and then a feed of carrots, 
apples, or small potatoes. Well ripened and thoroughly 
cured ensilage also makes a good fodder for yearlings as 
well as for older animals. 

One of the great advantages of the dairy business in 
connection with other branches of the home farm, is 
that a regluar monthly income is received and one does 
not have to wait until the end of the season for money 
with which to pay bills as they come along. 

Selecting the Family Cow. 

The man who knows the "points" of a good cow can 
go into the market and buy animals that will be what is 
desired, but the inexperienced buyer must depend upon 
the judgment of others. Some farmer friends or some 
reputable dealer or successful dairyman should be con- 
sulted. The first and last will advise honestly, and the 
second will often for a consideration find for you an 
animal that will be what you want. 

The Family Horse. 

Motorcycles, automobiles, and trolley cars have be- 
come common in almost every village and hamlet, and 
one may go to almost any section of the country with 
one of these, yet the family horse is not a thing of the 
past and prices have been going higher and higher for 
these for many years. No inanimate machine, no mat- 
ter how perfect its achievements, can take the place of 
that family pet that so faithfully and intelligently takes 
us about for business or pleasure. A good, well-trained 
horse soon becomes almost a member of the family, 
and even women and children may safely feed, groom 
and harness it. (Fig. 89.) 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 265 

The Stable. 

The horse should have warm, rather light and well- 
ventilated quarters. Where room is abundant a box 
stall is much better than the narrow tie-up stall. The 
family horse unless regularly fed and worked is liable 
to many diseases, caused often by improper food or 
over feeding. The horse's stomach is small and it 
should be given small quantities of food at more fre- 
quent intervals than the cow, which has a large stomach 



"i^^- ■"" '^" 


• 


jr ^^f 


i 

1 



Fig. 89 — The Family Horse. One That Has Done Service for 
Twenty-Six Years, and is Good for Many More. 

and can draw up the partially masticated food — her 
cud — and chew it over at her leisure. Very bulky food 
in large quantities should be avoided, though a feed 
now and then of meadow hay or corn stover may be 
beneficial. 

During the summer an occasional feed of green grass 
or a run in the pasture now and then will do the horse 
much good, and during the winter a few feeds of clover 
hay, or carrots will improve his digestion. For horses 
that are working but little, grain will not be needed 
except after having been driven, and then a few oats 



266 The Small Country Place 

will be the best feed. For working horses two parts of 
oats to one of cracked or whole corn make a good grain 
ration, giving them from one quart to six or eight quarts, 
according to size and the amount of work done. 

Timothy hay is generally considered the best "horse 
hay," but a clean bright mixture of several of the so- 
called English grasses with a sprinkling of clover in it 
may be equally good. 

Watering. 

Horses should be watered two or three times each day 
but never immediately after a feed of grain, as owing to 
the small size of the stomach the grain would be washed 
out before it was digested. 

Carriages and Harnesses. 

Carriages and harnesses are expensive additions to the 
home equipment, but with good care may last a long 
time. Varnished carriages should be kept where the 
gases from the manure-pit cannot arise and disfigure 
them. They should be kept clean by frequent washing 
and wiping with chamois leather; frequent examina- 
tions should be made, and any nuts or bolts that may 
have become loose should be tightened. 

Harnesses should be kept in a dry place, be cleaned 
frequently, and wiped over with harness soap. The 
leather should not be saturated with oil, as this causes 
decay, but after washing and before fully dry a dress- 
ing of oil should be applied. As with our own clothing, 
a stitch in time in the harness often saves nine or more 
and also a broken harness and perhaps a serious acci- 
dent. In a warm stable a thin blanket will be found 
economical in keeping the horse clean, and in a cold 
stable a thick one is needed for warmth. By the use of 
building paper, however, and a few laths any stable 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 267 

may be made warm, and it will be found cheaper to use 
the paper than to supply food to keep the animal heat 
up to a comfortable point. 

Bees. 

There is no more interesting living thing than the 

honeybee. It is possessed of wonderful intelligence and 

skill, producing large quantities of honey with little or 

no expense to the owner, and at the same time aiding 




Fig. 90 — A Modem Apiary. Note the Terraces and Open Ditches 
to Ensure Perfect Drainage ; also the Shelter of Grove in 
Background. 

in the more perfect fertilization of the flowers of all our 
fruit and ornamental trees and plants. As much as 
one hundred and sixty pounds of choice honey has been 
produced by one colony of bees in a single season. 

Bees occupy but a small space and require no expen- 
sive house to live in. In most large apiaries the hives 
are placed in the open and only a few inches from the 
ground (Fig. 90). Here the bees that come in laden 
with honey or pollen if they fail to alight on the board in 
front of the hive can crawl up and reach the hive and 
deposit their load. The ground, too, is warmer than the 



268 The Small Country Place 

air, and the hives are not as much exposed to winds as if 
on a higher stand. Small apiaries are often placed upon 
a stand two or three feet high, with a roof over it and 
where shelter and protection may be afforded during 
the winter without taking them into the cellar. Suc- 
cessful apiaries have been located upon the flat roofs of 
city houses, the bees flying several miles in search of 

honey. ^. rj- 

i he Hives. 

The old "box" hive is a thing of the past, having 
been superseded by those with movable frames to which 
the bees attach their combs, and which can be removed 
at pleasure for examination or rearrangement. 

Upon these frames is often placed "foundation" — 
thin sheets of wax — upon which the bees build their 
combs, this serving as a guide to enable them to put 
the combs straight and true on each frame. 

There are as many patent hives as of churns and 
washing machines, many of which possess features of 
merit, but the more simple the construction the better, 
and one skilled in the use of carpenter's tools can make 
for a small cost hives that are practically as good as 
many that are sold at high prices. 

Surplus Honey. 

The modern method of putting up surplus honey for 
market is by having small boxes or sections holding 
just one pound placed upon the top of the hive in such 
a manner that the bees will fill it in regular and even 
sheets. When quickly made the comb is very white, 
and all sections should be taken off as soon as the cells 
are capped over. The best honey is made from apple 
blossoms, white clover, basswood, and buckwheat, grad- 
ing about in the order given. That from other and mixed 
flowers is of poorer quality. The buckwheat is dark and 



Dairying, The Horse, and Bees 269 

does not bring as high prices as the hght and deHcate 
honey made from the first three flowers above mentioned. 

Swarming. 

One of the greatest trials of the beekeeper comes 
in May, June and July, when the bees are liable to 
"swarm. " If left to themselves along in the early sum- 
mer, the number of bees becoming too great for the 
hive, a large body of them with the queen will start out 
in the middle of some bright day to seek a new home. 
Before locating permanently they generally cluster on 
some bush or tree nearby while scouts are sent out in 
search of a new location. If taken at this time and put 
into a new hive they at once go to work, and if early 
in the season, before the supply of honey becomes 
short, they will make a strong colon ^^ This natural 
swarming is a very uncertain operation, and necessi- 
tates constant watching, as often swarms will come out 
when no one is near to hive them, and they disappear 
and are lost. Swarming is delayed and sometimes pre- 
vented by putting on extra sections when the bees seem 
to be idle, but the most certain method is by artificial 
swarming. This consists in first driving nearly all of 
the bees into a hive placed upon the one to be divided. 
Two or three frames containing young brood are placed 
in the centre of the new hive, which is then placed upon 
a new stand, two empty frames being put in the old hive. 
The new colony will soon fill the empty frames and rear 
a queen from the young brood of the two frames given 
them and both will become strong colonies. 

The details of caring for bees at all seasons can only 
be learned by closely watching them and studying 
some of the recent and up-to-date books on the subject 
like "A. B. C. of Bee Culture," and by visiting some 
good apiary. 



CHAPTER XIV 



Monthly Calendar 



IN this chapter are given suggestions and hints that 
may call to the mind of the busy home owner some 
of the work that ought to be done and the time for 
doing it, the detailed directions for the doing of which 
will be found in previous chapters of this book. These 
suggestions are given under headings which will enable 
the reader to find the desired suggestions without search- 
ing over all of each month's calendar. They are espe- 
cially adapted to New England, and to make them 
apply to more southern sections select those of two 
or three months ahead, while for the more northerly 
select those one or two months later. 

January. 

The Land. — When the land is covered with snow or 
frozen hard, manure may be drawn upon runners or 
wheels better than later when the weather may be 
more favorable for other work. This manure, how- 
ever, should not be spread upon the surface if the land 
is very sloping, as much of the liquid would be washed 
down hill during heavy rains or thaws. This month is 
the time to make plans for the coming year. It is the 
school time, when we may stop and take a breath and 
learn from books, agricultural papers, farmers' insti- 
tutes, etc., what others are doing, the best methods of 
growing our crops, desirable varieties, the best markets 
and methods of marketing, etc. Seedsmen's and nur- 
serymen's catalogues should be studied and orders put 

270 



Monthly Calendar 



271 



in for the seeds, fruit trees, and plants needed for the 
farm or garden. A definite plan for the treatment of 
each piece of land should be made. 

Buildings. — All buildings should be carefully inspected 
as to changes or repairs that are needed, as during the 
leisure time of this month and next much of this work 
may be done, or material be gotten out for future use. 
Painting may be done on the mild days in winter. Oil 
and paint, being a little thicker at this time, will harden 
more on the surface and not penetrate the wood as much 




Fig. 91 — After School and Before Chores. January. 

as in warm, dry weather, though it will not spread as 
easily. Thermometers should be kept in all stables, and 
vegetable and fruit cellars, to enable us to know what 
the temperature is before injury is done. 

Stock. — See that the stable is w^arm and free from 
cold drafts upon the animals, yet well ventilated. Don't 
overfeed the horses that stand in the stalls most of the 
time. Regular feed and water is of the utmost impor- 
tance. Sheep and Shetland ponies are so thoroughly 
protected by their coats of wool and hair that they 
thrive best if allowed to stay in the open air most of the 
time, but must have a dry place to stay in during stormy 



272 The Small Country Place 

weather. Give the pigs a dry place and an abundance 
of bedding. 

Roads and Walks. — Little can be done upon roads 
and walks at the North, but repairs and the making of 
new ones may be done further south. 

The Lazvn. — If uncovered, the lawn should be dressed 
with a little fine stable manure, to protect the grass 
roots. Coarse, green manure is unsightly and offensive 
and has no advantage over that which is fine and par- 
tially decomposed. 

Trees and Shrubs. — Ornamental trees and shrubs 
may be pruned during the winter if one has the leisure, 
except sugar maples, butternuts, and birches, which 
will flow sap from the wounds as the weather of spring 
comes on. These should not be pruned until the buds 
are well swollen in the spring. Order for any ornamen- 
tals that are to be planted in the spring should be sent 
in now, that a good selection may be obtained. The 
first orders in are often filled with the best specimens. 

The Flower Garden. — ^The making of plans and send- 
ing in orders for seeds and plants is about all that can 
be done at this time of the year. Materials for stakes, 
labels, etc., may be made ready for spring use. 

Greenhouses and Sash. — If one has a greenhouse 
now is the time when it should have the most careful 
attention. Be sure that all parts of the furnace are in 
good order, as a break or leak at this time may mean 
the loss of all in the house. Replace broken or cracked 
glass at once. Hot-bed sash should be looked over and 
all broken glass replaced and the sash bars be drawn 
with rather thick paint. This is often as effective in 
keeping out the water and holding the glass in place as 
using putty on the outside. 

The Orchard. — -If pruning of fruit trees is started 
this month and continued on warm days it may all 



Monthly Calendar 



273 



be completed before the rush of work in the spring. 
Pruning, especially on large trees, is slow work, and 
should be begun as early as possible. Prune from the 



/i 




Fig. 92 — Pruning from the Top Down. The work may be done 
at any time after the leaves fall up to the opening of the 
flower buds. 

top down, as in Fig. 92, and not from the trunk up as 
in Fig. 51, Chap. VII. 

The Vineyard. — Grapevines should be pruned dur- 
ing the winter but not while frozen. 

Small Fruits. — Little work can be done w4th small 
fruit plantations. Currant bushes may be pruned on 



274 TuE Small Country Place 

warm days and should the covering be blown from the 
strawberry bed it may be replaced. If this is done just 
before a snow or rain storm it will lie in place better 
than if put on in fair v/eather. 

Tools. — Every tool large and small on the place 
should be looked over and repaired and put into order 
for work. To prevent the iron and steel parts from 
rusting, wipe over with kerosene and linseed oil and 
paint the woodwork with linseed-oil paint. If a special 
color is selected, one's tools may be readily recognized 
when borrowed by neighbors who fail to return them. 
By this care tools may be made to last a lifetime 

Fertilizers. — Study the bulletins of the fertilizer in- 
spectors of the experiment stations, to decide what arc 
the best, and order such as are needed that they may be 
ready on the ground when spring work begins. 

Seeds. — Nurserymen's and seedsmen's catalogues 
should be coming along about this time and should be 
looked over to see what new things are offered. Novel- 
ties should be tested only in a small way, as nine-tenths 
of these have not proved more valuable than the old 
standard sorts. 

Poultry. — Keep the poultry warm but give plenty of 
air. Dryness, an abundance and variety of feed — not 
too much — with exercise, is the secret of the production 
of eggs in winter. 

Bees. — Look at the bees occasionally to see that the 
opening into the hives is not stopped up by ice and 
snow. Bees are often smothered after an ice or sleet 
storm. A packing of building paper around three sides 
of the hive or a box set over it will help keep them 
warm and save their supply of honey for use later in 
the winter, when it may be more needed. Hives and 
material for sections, etc., should be looked over and 
put in order for next summer. 



Monthly Calendar 275 

February. 

Land. — Continue the work suggested for last month. 
Winter should be the school time for those who live in 
the country and work on the land, and every spare 
moment should be utilized in learning w^hat others are 
doing in our line of work, by reading the papers and 
bulletins of experiment stations and the Department of 
Agriculture, all of which may be had for the asking. 
When possible, one should visit neighboring farmers 
Avho are successful in the same line of work, attend 
farmers' meetings, and exchange ideas as to the best 
methods, best varieties, markets, etc. 

Every piece of land we own should be studied care- 
fully and full plans made of what we will do with it 
the coming year. In no other way can we expect to 
reach the best success in our business. 

Buildings. — Work of repairs or improvements on 
buildings should be pushed so that we may have our 
time free for the active business on the land when 
spring opens. Watch the cellars, that frost does not 
get into them. A lantern or small stove will often keep 
out the frost, or extra banking of hay outside may be 
put on. 

Stock. — Keep the cows and horses in good condition 
by an occasional change of feed, giving them a little 
exercise in the yard or fields when the weather will per- 
mit. Unless working, horses should be fed lightly. 

Roads and Walks. — Gravel may still be put on the 
roads and walks, if the ground is uncovered. If heavy 
snows come upon the roadways, see that the shrubs 
and small trees are not broken down when it is shoveled 
out. See that evergreens are not broken down by the 
weight of snow. 

The Lawn. — Unless conditions change decidedly from 



276 



The Small Country Place 



last month, little or nothing can be done on the lawn. 
At the South, work of making new ones, reseeding old 
ones, etc., may go on as it would further north in 
March and April. 

Trees and Shrubs. — Few of us do all the pruning that 
our ornamental trees on the lawn or by the roadside 
need, and we therefore should keep the saws sharp and 
on mild days do what we can to improve them. Every 



k 




Fici. f].*? — Making Quick Work at the Wood-Pile. February. 

large cut made should be covered with thick linseed-oil 
paint to protect it from decay. 

The Wood-Pile. — Most people in the country depend 
upon Yv'ood with which to keep warm, and getting up 
the wood-pile is a very important part of the winter's 
work. In cutting wood the improvement of the wood 
lot should be kept in mind. By skill and good judgment 
one may cut out the trees that are worthless for lumber, 
thin out where they are too thick, obtaining all the wood 



Monthly Calendar 



277 



needed, and that which remains will grow all the better. 
Old apple trees that have badly decayed trunks or are 
of the cider-apple variety make the best of fire-wood 
and should be cut down. They are only breeders of 
insects, and the other varieties would be much improved 
by destroying them. The greatest fuel value is obtained 
from wood that is cut and split while green, allowed to 
dry a little while, and then put into a dry, open shed to 
season. Hickory, oak, maple, chestnut, and pine are 
valuable in the order given. A gasoline engine or even 
horse power will help make quick work of the wood- 
pile. (Fig. 93.) 

Lumber. — If there are large trees in the wood lot and 
a saw-mill in the vicinity, it will be economy at the 
present high price of lumber to have some of them cut 
for lumber for repairs or new buildings. A few boards 
and some dimension stuff for sills, studs, etc., will always 
find a use about the country home. 

The Flower Garden. — Little can be done here this 
month. Study the catalogues, make plans, and order 
what seeds and plants are desired. 

Greenhouses and Sash. — The work of raising plants for 
outside growth is going on in the Middle States and will 
begin in earnest at the North the last of the month. 
Many flower seeds like verbenas, pansies, Drummond 
phloxes, etc., may be sown under glass for early out-door 
blooming. 

Orchard. — x'Vs with the ornamentals, pruning in the 
orchards should be pushed. The old worthless apple 
trees in the pastures and by the roadsides should be cut 
down and put into the wood-pile. Keep in mind that 
pruning from the top forces growth near the ground 
where the fruit can be easily gathered and where spray- 
ing can be cheaply done, while pruning from the trunk 
up forces growth to the tops of the trees where fruit can- 



278 The Small Country Place 

not be easily reached nor the necessary spraying done, 
and tends to an early decay of the trunks and lower 
branches. (See Fig. 51, page 148.) 

If new trees are to be planted, orders should be sent 
in early and all plans as to distance and arrangement be 
completed. 

Vineyard. — The pruning of vines in the vineyard and 
on buildings and garden trellises should not be delayed 
or the flowing of sap when the buds begin to swell will 
injure them. See method of training in Chapter IX. 

Small Fruits. — Pruning of the raspberry and black- 
berry canes may be done now, though some growers 
delay this work until the buds begin to start that only 
dead wood may be cut out. The old and very small 
canes should be first cut out and then the new uninjured 
canes headed back about one-fourth of their length. 

Vegetable Garden. — Little outside work can be done 
at the North during this month, except getting out 
manure, securing supplies of fertilizers, seeds, etc., but 
at the South out-door work is going on rapidly. Every- 
thing that will relieve the rush when the weather will 
permit of out-door work should be done. At the South 
early crops of peas, lettuce, beets, radishes, rhubarb, 
asparagus, etc., are now being harvested, while these 
crops are in stages of development less advanced as we 
go north until we find everything except such as are 
under glass still in the icy bonds of frost and snow. 

Tools. — Keep at work upon the tools, and have every 
one put in the best possible condition. No one can do 
good w^ork with poor tools, and it will often pay to buy 
new and improved ones, especially labor-saving imple- 
ments like manure spreaders, weeders, wheel-hoes, seed 
and fertilizer drills, etc. 

Fertilizers. — Clean up the poultry houses, pig pens, 
box stalls, manure sheds, etc., and take account of the 



Monthly Calendar 279 

stock of manure and decide what will be needed for 
the crops to be grown. Don't spread over too large 
an area. We may often grow as much on an acre by 
intensive cultivation as is averaged on three or four 
acres, and the cost of cultivating the smaller area is 
very much reduced. Too many of us are "land poor." 

Seeds. — Look over the stock of seeds on hand and if 
any appear to be poor test them in a plate of moist 
sand between two sheets of cheesecloth or blotting 
paper. If the percentage of germination is 50 or below, 
and that not strong, throw the seed away, as the plants 
coming from it will probably be weak. Don't be too 
late in ordering seeds for farm or garden; or exchang- 
ing with neighbors, if they have good strains, is good 
practice. 

Poultry. — The hens should be laying heavily at this 
time and we should be planning for the best possible 
supply for setting next month. The hens should have a 
great variety of feed and be given a run in the open air 
during the middle of the day when the ground is un- 
covered. Every hen that wants to set should be removed 
to a room away from the other fowls and eggs be put 
under her. If a number can be set at once, at the proper 
time the eggs may be tested, the unfertile be thrown 
out and the fertile ones put together thirteen or fourteen 
to each hen, and those thus left without eggs be given a 
new lot. This also should be done with eggs in the incu- 
bator, and it is advisable to have two or three incuba- 
tors filled at once, that none of them be run with a small 
number of eggs. 

Brooders should be put in repair or new ones built 
so as to have them ready when the chickens are taken 
from the hens or incubators. 

Bees. — On warm days bees will be flying more or less, 
cleaning out their hives, and should be watched to see 



28o The Small Country Place 

that no robbing is done. If there is any indication of 

robbing the opening in front of weak hives should be 

reduced so that but one bee can pass in or out at a time. 

This will enable weak swarms to protect themselves. 

If there is any question as to the supply of honey in the 

hives of any colonies, the hives should be examined, 

and if the supply is short the bees may be fed sugar and 

water. 

March. 

The Land. — As we go north from Florida we shall 
find the land in various stages of cultivation. At the 
North only winter's work can be done, except in un- 
usual seasons, when plowing may sometimes be done and 
seeds like onions, peas, etc., planted. The work sug- 
gested for the two previous months should be completed 
as soon as possible, that undivided attention may be 
given to planting when warm or suitable weather 
comes on. 

Buildings. — As with all other winter work, all jobs 
upon or about the buildings should be rushed to the 
finish and every moment be given to it until it is 
completed. 

The days are growing longer and warmer and more 
and more outside work can be done, but unless we have 
planned wisely we often find that we have "bitten off 
more than we can chew" and will have to leave some 
jobs unfinished or get behind with some of our other 
work. At the North foundations of out-buildings are 
likely to settle as the frost is working out, and there is 
no better time to repair this and put the foundation 
deeper while the ground is soft and before the building 
is injured. In the care of old buildings — and new as 
well — we should go on the theory that "a stitch in time 
saves nine." 

Roads and Walks. — The best time to repair roads or 



Monthly Calendar 



281 



walks is when the frost is just working out of the ground. 
At this time the gravel will settle into the low wet 
places, and it soon becomes well compacted. Where 
there is a good road-bed only a narrow bed of gravel or 
broken stone should be put in the middle — ^not more 
than one-half of the width of the road-bed, as it will work 
out toward the edges from the travel over it. 

Look out for the gutters and bars, as the soft soil or 



't^ 






Fig. 94 — Sugar Orchard Scene in Vermont : Gathering the Sap. March, 

road material is more easily washed at this time than at 
any other season of the year. 

The Lawn. — Early in the spring is the best time to 
sow seed on the old lawn or make a new one. If manure 
was put on last fall, all of the coarse material should be 
raked off and some good lawn-grass seed be sown, raked 
in, and rolled. If there are many perennial weeds like 
dandelion, chickweed, speedwell, etc., in the lawn, they 
should be dug out before the raking and seeding. If 
there was a long growth on the lawn last fall it would 



282 The Small Country Place 

be best to rake off as much of it as possible on a very 
dry day, or when there can be no danger to buildings it 
may be burned off without injury. This old material, 
too, may be cut off with a very sharp lawn-mower and 
used as a mulch about the trees or put in the compost 
pile. 

Trees and Shrubs. — After the ground will work up fine 
and mellow, the earlier trees and shrubs are planted, 
the better. If any pruning remains unfinished it should 
be attended to at once. Roses and other tender shrubs 
should be uncovered and the former be severely pruned. 
The best roses are produced upon strong new shoots 
that come from near the ground, and the flowers when 
gathered should be cut with long stems that strong 
buds may start out below the cut and produce a con- 
tinued bloom. The covering about rhododendrons or 
other evergreen shrubs should not be removed too 
early, but may be thinned out and finally removed a 
week or two later. Shrubs that bloom early in the sum- 
mer, like golden bell, spir;jeas, and Japanese quinces, 
should not be pruned until after flowering. The manure 
placed in piles about the trunks of trees and shrubs 
should be spread about under the branches and if on 
the lawn raked off later. When fertilizer is depended 
upon for the growth of trees or shrubs on the lawn, 
now is the time to put it on. 

Spraying for the San Jose scale should be done before 
growth begins. The lime-and-sulphur scalicide and 
the scale destroyer have proved effectual in keeping this 
pest in check if not wholly destroying it, the former 
proving a good fungicide as well as insecticide. 

The Flower Garden. — Transplanting of hardy herba- 
ceous plants like peonies, iris, astilbe, phloxes, pinks, 
etc., may be done at this time of the year. If the 
plants are large they may be divided as shown in 



Monthly Calendar 283 

Fig. 34, Chap. V, a single clump of peonies or iris 
making sometimes a dozen to twenty plants. 

Seeds of hardy flowering plants, like alyssum, candy- 
tuft, hollyhocks, etc., may be sown as soon as the soil 
becomes fine and mellow. It is often the hot sun and 
drying surface of the soil that destroys germinating 
seeds, and they should be sown while the sun is low. 

Greenhouses and Sash. — This is a critical time for 
plants in the greenhouse and under frames. During 
bright sunny days unless one watches the ventilators large 
quantities of plants may be destroyed in an hour or two. 
Summer conditions are produced at this time by fur- 
naces and the increasing heat of the sun, and good 
judgment is required to keep up a healthful growth. 
Too much or too little water will cause serious injury 
as will too high or too low temperature, and insects 
increase at a wonderful rate. Plants should be run out 
into the frames as soon as possible, so that they may 
grow stocky and be well hardened off before planting 
permanently in the open ground. As the sun runs 
higher the glass should be shaded, first lightly with a 
very thin mixture of white lead and turpentine, which 
will give it a ground-glass appearance. Then later a 
more permanent shading may be made by adding a little 
more white lead and a little linseed oil. 

The Orchard. — Transplanting is now in order as soon 
as the ground will work up fine and mellow, but trees 
should not be planted when the soil is sticky like 
mortar. See that the tops and roots are cut back as 
shown in Fig. 42. 

The Vineyard. — All grapevines should have been 
pruned before this time and tied to their support on 
buildings, garden trellis, or vineyard wires. It is better, 
however, to prune now than to let it go undone. All 
trimmings should be cleared up and burned to destroy 



284 The Small Country Place 

any spores of disease there may be upon them. Spray- 
ing with a thick Bordeaux mixture or the Hme-sulphur 
mixture will help the vines resist mildews, anthracnose, 
black-rot, and other diseases. 

Small Fruits .—'RcLSpheTTy canes may now be uncov- 
ered, straightened up from the ground, and pruned. 
Spraying as advised for the grapevine will be a decided 
benefit. 

Tools. — See that every tool is cleaned and wiped dry 
after using. They should be hung up in a dry place. 
Keep the edges of hoes, spades, etc., sharp with the file 
or on the grindstone. A pound of effort in this way 
will save untold pounds of labor when we are using 
them among weeds and in digging where there are roots 
of trees and grass. 

Fertilizers. — Quickly soluble fertilizers like nitrate of 
soda or sulphate of ammonia, should not be sown until 
about the time the plants begin to grow. Much better 
results will be obtained from all fertilizers if sown in 
close contact with the roots. For seeds it should be 
drilled in or finely mixed with the soil used in covering. 
For fruit trees, small fruits, etc., it should be spread 
close about them as far as the branches or leaves ex- 
tend, and be cultivated or hoed in. 

Seed Testing. — No risk should be run in planting 
untested seed. If the dealer will not guarantee the 
vitality of the seeds, a home-made tester may be made of 
two soup-plates, a little sand, and two sheets of blotting 
paper or cheesecloth large enough to cover the plates. 
The sand is put into the plate level full and made per- 
fectly level by drawing a straight edge over it. It is 
then wet almost to saturation and one sheet of the 
blotting paper or cheesecloth spread over it. Then 10, 
25, or 100 seeds are placed on the cloth or paper, the 
second cover is put on, and a little sand sprinkled over 



Monthly Calendar 285 

it, and the second plate put on over all. This tester is 
then placed where the temperature is even, for cab- 
bages, onions, beets, radishes, peas, etc., at about 50° 
to 60° during the day and 40° to 50° at night, and for 
corn, beans, cucumbers, melons, peppers, etc., 70° to 
80° during the day and 60° to 70° at night. All seeds 
will germinate more certainly if the night temperature 
is about 10° to 15° lower than that of the day. 

Poultry. — Early hatched chickens either from the hen 
or incubator will generally do better in brooders if they 
are properly made and the heat well regulated. Many 
kinds of brooders that work satisfactorily are on the 
market, or very serviceable ones may be made by any 
one skilled in the use of carpenter's tools. For heat a 
lamp must be used with a burner the blaze of which 
will not grow larger as the lamp and surrounding space 
become warmed, as many ordinary lamp-burners do. 

Bees. — Continue to watch for robbing and see that 
each colony has honey enough, for as warm weather 
comes on and they are breeding rapidly they will con- 
sume a large amount and w411 be unable to collect much 
until next month at least. Let everything be cleaned 
up around the hives and stands, so that the bee moth 
may not find ready hiding-places. 

April. 

The Land. — The work of this month at the North and 
February at the South are soraewhat alike, except that 
at the South there has not been the frost and snow but 
continued spring for several months. At the South 
summer crops are being harvested, while at the North 
only spring planting is just begun. Seeds of radishes, 
onions, turnips, cabbages, celery, parsnips, beets, etc., 
may be sown out of doors on land that will work up fine 
and mellow. Mowin^rs and meadows should be dressed 



286 The Small Country Place 

with fine stable manure or fertilizer before much growth 
begins, though nitrate of soda will give better results if 
sown a month later. 

Greenhouses and Frames. — These are being crowded 
with plants from seeds and cuttings, which are moving 
in rapid succession from the greenhouse to the frames. 
All plants like cabbage, cauliflower, celery, geranium, 
verbena and other bedding plants do better if hardened 
off in the frames. 

Roads and Walks. — These should be fixed up as soon 
as the ground has settled. The farm road need not be 
of gravel, but when ruts are made if a little loam or turf 
is put into the ruts, some grass seed sown and then 
rolled with a heavy roller or dragged, it will soon become 
solid enough for all ordinary farm teaming, and be much 
neater and more easily kept in repair. Grass walks 
slightly crowning in the middle, the grass being kept 
cut close with a lawn-mower, make beautiful walks and 
are passable even in light shoes at all times except 
during storms and after heavy dews in the morning. 

The Lawn. — -When the grass has reached three or four 
inches in height the lawn-mower should be run over it, 
but it is best to let it get strong before clipping closely. 
Quickly soluble fertilizers or fine stable manure should 
be put on, with a liberal seeding of lawn grasses, all 
well raked in and rolled. If this is done just before a 
rain, the seed will be nicely covered and start at once 
into a vigorous growth. 

Trees and Shrubs. — Transplanting may still be done, 
but the more advanced the season the more severely the 
tops must be cut back. If the soil be very dry water 
may be poured into the holes before the trees are set, 
or, after the roots are partially covered it may be put 
in to settle the soil about them. A small quantity of 
water used in this way will do more good than many 



Monthly Calendar 287 

times the amount put on the surface after the hole is 
filled up. After planting in a dry time the surface soil 
should be kept light and mellow or mulch of hay or 
straw be used to keep in the moisture. 

The Flower Garden. — Here, as in every other line of 
work in the farm and ga.rden, every moment must be 
made the most of. The earlier transplanting of hardy 
plants is done, the better. The fight against weeds like 
witch grass, sorrel, etc., must be made early, and the 
weeds pulled out root and branch and taken to the com- 
post pile. Annual weeds are best destroyed with a rake 
or light hoe as the seedlings are breaking through the 
ground. An hour's time at this stage of growth will 
accomplish more than a day when the weeds are large. 

The Vegetable Garden. — All crops that grow at a low 
temperature should be planted outside this month or 
early the next. The asparagus bed should be cleaned 
up, the tops burned, and manure or fertilizer worked 
in. Rhubarb beds should be treated in the same way. 
If they were covered last fall with a heavy coating of 
manure the coarsest part should be removed and the 
finer spaded in. If the soil is heavy cover seeds lightly. 
A good rule for covering seeds is, under the average good 
condition of soil, to cover two or three times their thick- 
ness when the soil is well pressed upon them. 

The Orchard. — If possible spray all fruit trees before 
the blossoms open. Use Paris green or arsenate of lead 
for all leaf-eating insects. Remove the webs of all tent 
caterpillars from fruit trees and the wild cherry while 
they are small. 

If young trees are kept dormant they may be planted 
until the middle of May, but their chances for growing 
are much less than if planted earlier. Consult experi- 
ment station bulletins as to latest and best methods of 
combating insect and fungous pests. 



288 The Small Country Place 

Small Fruits. — New plantations of all small fruits, if 
not made last fall, should be done as early as possible, 
cutting the tops of raspberry and blackberry canes 
back to only a few inches above the surface of the 
ground after planting. Apply an abundance of manure 
or fertilizer about each plant before growth begins. 
Spray these and currant bushes with the Bordeaux mix- 
ture before the leaves unfold. The earlier strawberry 
plants are set in the spring, the better. Use only plants 
with white roots. Those with black roots are old plants. 

Poultry. — Chickens should have constant attention. 
Regular feed in considerable variety will be needed for 
the best growth. If given the run of a pasture, a brush 
lot, asparagus field, or raspberry or blackberry planta- 
tion, they will develop rapidly. If they are kept in small 
pens or coops these should be moved frequently to keep 
up the supply of green food. If hens are kept in close 
pens, they should be let out a short time each day just 
before going to roost. All fowls more than one year old 
should be dressed for home use or market as they cease 
laying. 

Bees. — This is a busy time with the bees. As warmer 
weather comes on they can gather pollen and a little 
honey, and if they still have some stores on hand they 
should be breeding rapidly. See that they are well 
supplied with honey for their increasing family. 

May. 

The Land. —Fit the land thoroughly for all kinds of 
crops. Harrowing, rolling or dragging an acre one or 
two times extra when one is at the job will add but 
little to the cost, while it may save much after labor 
and give a much larger crop. Stirring the soil, espe- 
cially on bright, sunny days, helps to warm it up 
wonderfully. 



Monthly Calendar 289 

Buildings. — See that the water from the eaves is car- 
ried away from the building quickly, for if sills are con- 
stantly saturated with moisture during warm weather 
they decay rapidly. Gutters should be arranged and the 
soil so graded that water will not run back upon the 
cellar walls if a dry and healthful cellar is desired. 

Stock. — As soon as feed has become abundant, the 
cows and heifers should be turned out to pasture. This 
time ranges from the ist to the 20th of the month, 
according to latitude. As warm weather comes on a feed 
now and then of carrots, small potatoes, or green grass, 
will do the horses good. Young calves that have been 
fed from the pail all winter should be tied out a short 
time each day before putting out to pasture. 

Roads and Walks. — Weeds will soon start to grow in 
any material on roads and walks except coarse gravel 
or broken stone, and the surface of the old w^alks, if to 
be kept clean, should be hoed and raked over and a thin 
dressing of screened gravel or broken stone be put on. 
If grass roads and walks are to be kept up, levelling off 
here and there where ruts have been made, adding some 
new soil and lots of grass seed, will ensure a good growth 
of grass. 

The Lawn. — The routine work of clipping is the 
principal need upon the lawn this month. The edges 
of walks, beds, and borders, must be frequently cut, 
as the grass spreads rapidly at this time of the year. 

Trees and Shriths. — Much may be done to improve the 
form of trees and shrubs by pinching or cutting off the 
ends of shoots that tend to grow beyond the outline 
desired. All sprouts from near the ground or along the 
trunks should be rubbed off as soon as discovered. No 
large branches should be cut at this time except from 
maples, butternuts, and birches, which were not trimmed 
in winter on account of bleeding. For cutting large 



290 



The Small Country Place 



branches the saw only should be used, and never the axe. 
The Flower Garden. — Here as everywhere else weeds 
will need attention and should be treated as recom- 
mended for those in the vegetable garden. As the 
flowering plants, hke lilies, hollyhocks, etc., grow tall, 
they should be tied to neat stakes. If grass-walks have 
been made between the beds the lawn-mower should be 
run frequently and the edges cut often. The more closely 




Fig. 95 — ^The Beginning of the Strawberry Crop. May. 

the flowers like pansies, sweet peas, etc., are picked the 
longer they will continue to bloom. 

The Vegetable Garden. — The close of this month will 
see the seeds of all kinds of vegetables sown — cucumbers, 
melons, and squashes, not until the last, while corn, 
beans, tomatoes, etc.. are planted or set out earlier. 
Small lots of peas, sweet com, radishes, lettuce, etc., 
should be planted at intervals of two weeks in succes- 
sion for the summer home supply. This month we 



Monthly Calendar 291 

should have an abundance of radishes, lettuce, aspara- 
gus, rhubarb, spinach, etc., from our own garden. 

The Orchard. — Follow the suggestions for last month. 
After the petals have fallen, spray for the codling moth, 
canker worm, plum curculio, etc., using the Bordeaux 
mixture and Paris green or arsenate of lead. 

Small Fruits. — One spraying with Bordeaux mixture 
and an arsenate is all that will be needed on the small 
fruits before the blossoms open. The currant and goose- 
berry bushes should have especial care just as the leaves 
unfold, to destroy the currant worm, that appears at 
this time. Frequent cultivation with the horse or hand 
wheel-cultivator is necessary for a rapid growth. 

Poultry. — Close watch must be kept that chickens are 
not taken by crows, hawks, owls, skunks, etc. Keep 
their quarters clean and dry. As they increase in size 
they will require more room and should be put into the 
colony houses as soon as the weather permits. They 
will grow in proportion to the feed and care given. 

Bees. — This month should be the best harvest time 
for the bees. The blossoms of apple and other flowering 
trees and shrubs are abundant during the early part of 
the month, and white clover comes on soon after. The 
best honey is made from apple blossoms and w^hite 
clover. Keep all the bees at work in strong colonies by 
having plenty of sections on the top. This may prevent 
swarming. Artificial swarming may be done on warm 
days, taking frames of brood from strong hives and 
putting them into new hives with most of the old bees. 
If this division is carried on too far, it may be at the 
expense of a large surplus the first season, but we have 
two or more strong colonies in place of one, and perhaps 
would have lost one or more swarms, had they swarmed 
naturally. 



292 The Small Country Place 

June. 

The Land. — As in May the principal work upon the 
land is cultivating frequently to kill weeds, produce or 
develop plant food in the soil, and prevent the escape of 
moisture. By the last of the month the early crops of 
peas, lettuce, beets, etc., may be off the land, so that 
it may be plowed or spaded and manured for a second 
crop. Where there is a rye, clover or other green crop 
upon the land, it may be turned under and the land 
fitted for a crop of cabbages, caulifiowTrs, celery, late 
beets, turnips, etc. If a large dressing of stable manure 
was applied in the spring, commercial fertilizers may be 
used with profit for the second crop, especially those 
quickly soluble like nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, 
potash salts, etc. Bone, fish, and other organic manures 
are so slow in dissolving that they cannot be profitably 
used for these late crops. 

Buildings. — Rain storms and gales are more frequent 
during the summer, and every precaution should be 
taken that doors and window^s be so fastened as not to 
be blown down, and any damage caused in this way 
should be repaired at once. After continued dry weather 
leaks on the roofs, especially about chimneys, may be 
discovered with the first rain thereafter. 

Roads and Walks. — Continue to follow suggestions for 
the previous months. Keep gutters and bars cleared so 
that in heavy showers the water will pass quickly from 
the surface and not cause bad washouts. 

The Lawn. — The grasses grow rapidly this month if 
there is an abundance of rain, and the lawn-mower 
should be run frequently. It is better to cut frequently 
and let the clippings lie upon the ground than to cut less 
frequently, and have to rake the clippings and cart them 
away. If water is applied to the lawn, enough should 



Monthly Calendar 



293 



be used to wet down to the lower roots. A little water 
upon the surface does more harm than good, as it causes 
the roots to grow near the surface, and with continual 
drouth the plants are more injured than if none were 
used. A little nitrate of soda or quickly soluble lawn 
dressing will help to keep the lawn green. These should 
be sown just before a shower if possible. 

Trees and Shrubs. — The elm beetle will appear in 
many localities, and spraying with arsenate of lead or 
Paris green is the surest remedy. If the Bordeaux mix- 
ture is used it will prevent injury of the leaves by the 
elm blight. 

Newly planted trees must be watched. In times of 
drouth if they are found wilting a space should be dug 
nearly down to the roots, a few pailfuls of water put in, 
and the soil replaced. After this a mulch of hay or straw 
should be applied. If one has running water, enough 
should be applied to the surface to wet down to the roots. 
As upon the lawn, a little water will do more harm than 
good in a dry time. 

A power spraying outfit and at least two good climbers 
besides the driver are needed to spray tall trees most 
economically. Spraying while the larva of the gypsy- 
moth, the brown-tail, is small is a more effectual rem- 
edy than any traps or parasites. 

The Flower Garden. — As fast as the flowers fade the 
stalks should be removed unless it is desired to save the 
seeds, in which case they should be allowed to fully 
mature. Gather the seed stalks and pods that are ripe 
and keep them in sheets or in large paper bags after 
they have been dried. Be sure to label distinctly with 
name and date of gathering. Keep in a cool, dry place. 

The Vegetable Garden. — Garden crops that require 
high temperature like beans, com, cucumbers, squashes, 
and tomato and pepper plants, may still be planted and 



294 The Small Country Place 

the second crop of peas, beets, cabbages and cauli- 
flowers, etc. The fight with weeds must still be kept up 
and the ground stirred to keep in the moisture. 

The Orchard. — Continue to watch closely for insect 
pests. The San Jose scale will begin hatching young 
this month, which is easily killed by most of the well- 
known remedies before the hard scale is formed upon 
its body. Scalicide, scale destroyer, etc., must be used 
in a dilute form during the summer or it will injure the 
foliage. 

Small Fruits. — The first fruit of the season, the straw- 
berry, is gathered this month at the North. (Fig. 76.) 
For home use picking once in two days except in very 
hot, moist weather is all that is needed. The value of 
the crop depends much upon how it is picked and 
marketed. The fruit should be cooled off as soon as 
possible after picking, but not put upon ice unless it is 
to be shipped in refrigerator cars. Keep the ground 
moving among all of the bush fruits and the young 
strawberry plants. 

Grapevines must have attention, tying up all canes 
that are to be grown for next year's fruiting, and pinch- 
ing the ends of all the fruiting laterals at the last cluster 
of blossom buds. After this the ends of all new shoots 
must be pinched except the two or three new canes on 
the lower vines that are to be fruiting canes next year. 
Vines on buildings and garden trellises must be treated 
the same way, except that as many canes must be 
allowed to grow to their full length as are needed to 
cover the required space. 

Poultry. — As the chickens grow older more space and 
care and feed will be required to keep them in a health- 
ful condition. Give them an abundance of range for 
fresh green food and insects, either by moving the col- 
ony houses frequently or by changing their ranges. 



Monthly Calendar 295 

The fowls that are now ceasing to lay had better be put 
upon the market, and the cockerels separated from the 
flock and fattened as fast as possible. At this time they 
should be bringing high prices and if well dressed will 
bring an income that will pay the large and increasing 
grain bills. 

Bees. — Keep a sharp outlook of the bees and if they 
swarm put the swarm into a new hive and place it on a 
new stand at night. Keep all idle bees at work by add- 
ing sections to the hive for them to fill. Any section of 
honey well capped should be removed at once and new 
sections added, as the longer it remains on the hive the 
darker the comb becomes. The middle of the day is the 
best time to work among the bees, as all are busy gath- 
ering honey and do not have time to look after other 

people's affairs. 

July. 

The Land. — This is a good time after the hay is cut to 
turn over exhausted mowing land and reseed. The 
earlier this is done the better, but the seed had not best 
be put in until the land has been thoroughly aerated by 
frequent harrowing. August is nature's seeding time, 
and seed sown on land made thoroughly fine and mellow 
with the harrow, with 500 to 800 pounds of good grass 
fertilizer per acre, will pay a large profit upon the 
investment. 

Roads and Walks. — A heavy dressing of salt or an 
application of some "herbicide" will kill weeds in the 
walks and roads. This is easier than hoeing them up, 
but more expensive, perhaps. 

The Lawn. — The same care is needed on the lawn as 
last month. Annual weeds, finger grass, etc., will begin 
to grow in the bare spaces among the grass roots, and 
the best way to get rid of them is to cut the grass close. 
Sow more grass seed and apply fertilizer just before a 



296 The Small Country Place 

rain. A thin dressing of very fine rich manure after the 
seed is sown is better than lawn fertihzer. 

Trees and Shrubs. — These will require little or no 
special care during this month, except to direct their 
growth as suggested in previous months. We should 
not allow any growth to continue that we must remove 
next winter or spring if we can avoid it. Removing the 
seed pods of lilacs, spiraeas, etc., will cause them to 
grow more vigorously and mature larger and more abun- 
dant flower buds the next season. 

The Flower Garden. — -This month we should be en- 
joying the products of our labors in an abundance of 
flowers, but care should not be relaxed or we may be 
swamped with weeds, which grow almost in a day at this 
time of the year. Large plants like dahlias, cosmos, 
hollyhocks, gladiolus, etc., should be tied to neat stakes 
to prevent their being broken in heavy rain storms. 
Early maturing seeds should be gathered and put in 
paper bags or large envelopes. 

The Vegetable Garden.— The planting of seeds for the 
season will end with this month. Seeds of late beets, 
lettuce, radishes, and turnips may still be sown, and 
. cabbage, cauliflower, and celery plants may be set out 
in rich soil. Frequent stirring of the soil should be 
kept up. Seed stock of all kinds of vegetables should be 
selected before any of the crop has been harvested. By 
selecting seed from the earliest and best stalks of sweet 
com, the best shaped summer squash, the smoothest, 
best shaped and most vigorous tomato plants, etc., our 
strain of these vegetables will be much improved. If 
several varieties of the above are planted in the same 
garden they will so mix as generally to be of little value. 
Sometimes, however, these crosses may be valuable; 
thus, if a yellow sweet com like the Golden Bantam is 
crossed with a yellow of larger size, and the best of the 



Monthly Calendar 



297 



stalks and. ears of this be saved for several years until 
its characteristics are well fixed, it may be of more 
value than either of the original varieties. New varie- 
ties, however, require several years of planting by 




Fig. 96 — Currants and Gooseberries Ripen in July. 

themselves before their real value can be determined. 

The Orchard. — In July we begin to gather some of the 
tree fruits. Cherries ripen from the middle of June to 
August, and must be picked as soon as ripe or they will 
decay. Birds are the greatest obstacle to cherry grow- 
ing in the Eastern United States, and where one has but 



298 The Small Country Place 

a few trees they get them all. By covering with old fish 
nets or (if the trees are small) mosquito netting, some of 
them may be saved. In large orchards, the amount 
taken may not be missed and perhaps is no more than 
pays for the bugs and worms the birds destroy in other 
seasons of the year. Some of the very early apples will 
begin to ripen the last of the month, and all of the first 
droppings should be fed to the cows, horses, pigs, or 
poultry, to destroy the insects they contain. Pigs and 
poultry may be turned in among the trees, but cows 
and horses will badly injure trees with low heads. All 
trees heavily loaded with fruit as to endanger breaking 
down should be thinned out or propped up. It is often 
the case that if half of the fruit is removed from the 
plum, pear, peach, and even the apple tree, that which 
remains will be much larger and finer, will measure as 
much and bring higher prices than all would if un- 
thinned. In this work of thinning all defective or 
wormy fruit should be picked off and destroyed, as it is 
worthless, only continues to breed insects, and takes the 
strength of the trees. With plums and peaches no two 
specimens of fruit should touch, and each fruit should 
have from three to six inches of space upon the branches. 
Small Fruits. — Strawberries are through with fruit- 
ing along the Middle States and will last but a week or 
two in New England, but will be found more or less in 
our markets for a month, being brought from the North 
and East. As soon as the crop is off, unless the bed is to 
be carried along another year, which is not the best 
practice, the land with all the plants, mulch, and weeds 
should be turned under and fitted for a crop of cab- 
bages, beets, celery, or turnips. To plow this well under 
without clogging at short intervals, a sharp wheel- 
coulter, which will cut through all this organic matter, 
should be used. If the land is free from weed seeds, it 



Monthly Calendar 299 

can be very easily put into condition for seeding early 
in August and next season will yield a large crop of hay. 

The new bed or field must be watched and weeds be 
kept out. If not growing satisfactorily scatter a little 
fertilizer along the rows and rake or cultivate it in. 
Runners should be placed where wanted or cut off if the 
plants are to be kept in hills. Raspberries and black- 
berries are fruiting and the soil should be stirred fre- 
quently among the rows to keep in the moisture, with- 
out which the berries will be small and few. All canes 
coming up between the hills or in the rows should be 
treated as weeds and be cut off or pulled up. If canes 
are falling on the ground with the weight of fruit or 
foliage, loosen the wires, place them over in the middle 
of the row^s and then draw taut again, which will bring 
the canes up straight and close together. (Fig. 72.) 
The fruiting canes of grapevines should be girdled 
about July ist to hasten ripening at the North; at 
the South this is not needed. For shipping grapes this 
is not desirable, as the skin is more tender and the 
berries more easily crushed. 

Poultry. — At this time of the year poultry can be 
given a liberal supply of green food from the garden, 
or may obtain a large amount of this food from the pas- 
tures and fields, in the ranges among blackberry and 
raspberry bushes, or in the asparagus field. All cock- 
erels except those to be saved for breeding should be 
marketed as soon as they are in good condition, and to 
this end should be separated from the pullets and fed 
fattening foods. There is much danger of neglecting the 
houses, roosts, and nests at this season of the year, yet 
even more care need be given, for during hot weather 
vermin grow more rapidly than during the winter. 
Whitewash the walls and roosts with lime and kerosene 
at least everv month. 



300 The Small Country Place 

Bees. — This month Httle time need be given to the 
bees, except to see that all sections filled and capped be 
taken off as soon as filled and new ones put in their 
places. 

August. 

The Land. — Most of the land is now covered with farm 
or garden crops. If the grass land is dressed with fine 
stable manure after the hay has been cut, the mulch 
and plant food thus given will cause a rapid growth of 
new roots and shoots, and the crop for next year be 
greatly improved. 

Weeds of all kinds, and especially hot-weather weeds 
like pusley, pigweed, etc., are growing rapidly and the 
only way to keep them subdued cheaply is by stirring 
the soil frequently. When they are small, light hoeing, 
raking, or using the fine-tooth cultivator, will destroy 
them, but when they become larger, the wing-toothed 
cultivator or small plow must be used to cover them up 
or they must be carried off the field. 

This is the best month for seeding grass, but a fine 
and deep seed-bed and a rich surface soil are necessary 
for a strong growth of the grass seedlings. 

Roads and Walks. — Little work need be done on roads 
and walks this month, other than was suggested for pre- 
vious months. Keep the gutters clear so that there 
shall be no washing during hard showers. Tar-concrete 
gutters, walks, and crossings are best made during hot 
weather. 

Trees and Shrubs. — These are about in midseason's 
growth, and many are maturing the terminal buds, so 
that no pruning is needed. Hedges which are pruned 
to keep them in a close, low form may now be pruned 
for the last time. The seeds of all kinds should be gath- 
ered when those first ripened are beginning to fall. 



Monthly Calendar 301 

Those maturing early in the season Hke elm, red maple, 
etc., should have been sown at once and at the end of 
the season we will have seedlings several inches in height. 
Pine cones should be gathered at this time, put in bur- 
lap bags, and hung in a dry, airy place. They are the 
most quickly gathered by climbing into the trees and 
using long pruning hooks to cut them off. The seeds 
will fall out of the cones in the bags when dry. This 
seed is worth several dollars per pound. This is the 
best time in which to transplant evergreens unless it 
should be a very dry season. A moist day should be 
selected if possible. See that the soil is tramped about the 
roots very firmly. If very dry pour water into the holes. 

The Flower Garden. — Bulbs that were not dug up in 
the spring and dried may be transplanted now, in the 
same ground or elsewhere. Make the soil rich and 
mellow. Gather all seeds as they mature and put in 
paper bags or envelopes distinctly labeled. 

The Vegetable Garden. — ^The supply of fresh vegetables 
should be abundant at this time. All root vegetables 
become fibrous and woody, if allowed to stand long after 
maturing. Cabbages crack open; cauliflow^ers branch 
out; tomatoes decay, and should therefore be gathered 
and stored or sold. Cabbages and cauliflowers are espe- 
cially forced into maturity by frequent stirring of the 
soil with the rake, hoe or cultivator, and may be re- 
tarded by loosening the roots a little. Sweet com, and 
field com for grain or fodder, should be cut up and 
stacked as soon as the kernels are glazed and before 
frost, if possible. Squashes must be gathered before 
frost and stored in a warm, airy place to cure, but the 
longer they remain on the vines the harder the shell, 
the drier the flesh, and the longer they will keep. Seeds 
of the common field turnips, and spinach, may still be 
planted at the North, for the winter's supply. 



302 The Small Country Place 

The Orchard. — Early varieties of apples and pears 
must now be harvested and sold at once, as they keep 
but a short time. Where the trees are low such varie- 
ties as Astrachan, Williams, Early Strawberry, Graven- 
stein, etc., are most satisfactory if allowed to drop on a 
mulch of hay, as they are not colored if picked before 
they are almost mellow. Pears should be picked as soon 
as fully grown and ripened in the box or barrel when 
shipped to market. The color is better if ripened in a 
close, warm place. Peaches and plums for local markets 
should ripen on the tree and not be picked until the 
green color of unripe fruit has changed to a yellow and 
the fruit is almost mellow. If any trees show signs of 
weakness with leaves yellow and small, look for San Jose 
scale, and spray as previously directed. Look also for 
borers and dig them out, or for the woolly aphis and spray 
as for the San Jose scale. Black knots on the plum 
trees should be cut off or painted with linseed-oil paint 
with a little kerosene in it. Cover crops of peas and 
barley will be beneficial if sown the first of the month 
and allowed to lie on the ground until next spring before 
turning under. 

Small Fruits. — The principal work for this month is 
keeping down weeds among the raspberry and black- 
berry plants and currant bushes. Grapes are ripening 
the first of the month at the South and the last of this 
month and early September at the North. (Fig. 97.) 
This fruit must be ripened on the vines, and the longer 
it can hang the better the quality. It requires but a 
light frost to destroy the leaves, and if the frosts come 
before the fruit is ripened it can only be used for 
cooking. Vines in the garden or on buildings may be 
protected by covering, but no method of protection has 
been devised that is successful and profitable in vine- 
yards. 



Monthly Calendar 303 

Poultry. — Keep up the fattening and marketing of the 
chickens. They will soon "eat their heads off" if not 
kept growing and sold as soon as they are mature enough. 
Pullets and fowls should have all the run possible and be 
fed a variety of food, to cause early moulting, that they 
may begin laying before the holidays. Don't let the 
hens and pullets out of the houses until the air is warmed 
up in the morning when there is frost. 

Bees. — Watch the hives for moths, and robbing of the 
weak swarms, as the supply of honey decreases. Bees 
are like children, and even older persons; when idle they 
easily get into mischief. 

September. 

The Land. — The last of August and the first of this 
month is nature's seeding time. The seeds of grasses 
ripen the last of July and early in August and fall on the 
ground, and the rains cause them to germinate and get so 
deeply rooted as not to be thrown out by the freezing 
and thawing of the fall and spring. Weeds and brush 
should be cut along the walls and fences, and carried 
away, and not allowed to lie on the ground to smother 
out the grasses. If trimming is done along the roadside, 
the beautiful species of trees, shrubs and vines should be 
allowed to remain and only the weedy and undesirable 
be cut. When the surface of the roadside is rough and 
stony, shrubs and vines make a more beautiful covering 
than grass and weeds. 

Buildings. — Plans should be made for repairs and im- 
provements to buildings to put them into the best pos- 
sible condition for winter. If they are leaky, look for 
loose shingles, cracks between shingles, etc., which show 
better in dry weather than after a rain. A slender spike 
on the end of a pole will enable one below to locate 
small holes so that one on the roof can see where new 



304 The Small Country Place 

shingles are needed. Any boards that have warped out 
of shape during the dry weather should be nailed in 
place before they come off and are broken. 

Stock. — Plans should also be made as to where the 

1 stock will best be win- 
"' tered. Box stalls for 
the young stock and 
^ possibly for the horses 
. may be more desirable 
•> than tie-up stalls. 
Make doors and win- 
dows tight but so as 
J to be easily opened and 
shut for ventilation. 

Roads and Walks. — 

Road material put on 

>^ this month will be well 

' trodden before winter 

sets in. On nicely 

kept lawns, fiat or level 

road - beds on a level 

with or a trifle above 

. the turf are better 

than if crowned, but 

where the material is 

poor crowning from six 

inches to a foot on a 

width of ten to twelve 

T, n- xj . .. r^ .. " feet of road-bed will 

I'iG. 9/ — Harv^esting the urape Crop. 

September. give the bcst rcsults. 

In repairing put the new material in the middle of 
the road-bed, over four to six feet of road-bed six inches 
deep in the center and running down to nothing on the 
edges. 

The Lawn. — Keep the lawn closely clipped to prevent 



^iH( 



Monthly Calendar 305 

annual weeds from producing seed. If not already done, 
get some fine manure or lawn dressing and grass seed 
on the surface as soon as possible. Cut and pull out all 
grass roots running into the flower beds. If new lawn 
is to be made use turf for the edges of walks, borders of 
beds, etc. This will enable us to work in the walks or 
beds when necessar}^ without injuring the very young 
grass seedlings. 

Trees and Shrubs. — Evergreens may still be trans- 
planted with success if the weather is moist and the 
ground not dry. Greenhouses that have been resting 
and drying out should be started, watered, new soil and 
lots of manure put into the beds. Keep the houses open 
as long in the fall as possible to keep the plants healthy 
and stocky. Sow seeds of lettuce in beds outside. 

The Flower Garden. — Planting of bulbs is now in order 
if they can be obtained. Many of the importations of 
Dutch bulbs come later than this month, but those 
taken from the beds last spring after blooming may be 
put in at any time. The richer the bed is made and the 
finer the soil the better will be the blooin next spring. 
Hardy herbaceous plants like peonies, iris, etc., may be 
transplanted as well as all kinds of bulbs. Make the 
beds very rich. Upon the lawn very pretty results are 
obtained by planting crocus bulbs in the grass. A hole 
an inch or two in diameter and four inches deep is made, 
the bulb is placed at the bottom and the hole filled 
with fine rich soil. These will bloom one or tw^o years 
and then must be renewed. 

The Vegetable Garden. — The tender vegetables must be 
harvested at the North before heavy frosts appear. The 
leaf stalks of celery plants must be drawn together and 
the soil packed about them to make them grow close 
and straight. Potatoes are generally better out of the 
ground after this month if one has a cool place in which 



306 The Small Country Place 

to store them; otherwise they will be better in the 
ground until cool weather conies on. If the pea and 
bean pods were not picked clean they may be pulled 
when ripe, dried, and later threshed out for winter use. 
These are just as nutritious for winter use as the small 
white beans and peas, though they may not look as 
well. Cultivation of the soil, while not as much needed 
as during July and August, must be kept up to kill the 




Fig. 98 — Sorting and Packing Apples. October. This work may be 
done as picked from the tree, or in the more leisure time later. 

weeds and help the growth of late growing crops like 
cabbages, cauliflowers, etc. 

The Orchard. — On orchards in cultivation this should 
cease unless the trees are weak. When in turf more 
mulch of old hay, straw, or weeds may be put on at any 
time if needed, but must not be close to the trunks as it 
will shelter mice. 

Nearly all fall varieties of apples and pears are now 
ripening and must be marketed before they become 



Monthly Calendar 307 

mellow. Keep the dropped fruit cleaned up and fed to 
the stock or chickens. Pick the pears when the wormy 
specimens are beginning to mellow but don't pick until 
fully grown. The largest may be picked first, when the 
small ones will grow faster and may be picked later. To 
ripen quickly after picking keep them in the dark at 60° 
to 70.° The lower the temperature the longer they will 
keep. The last of this month and early October is the 
best time for picking winter fruit; if fully grown and 
well colored, at the earlier date, or if not well colored, 
from the first to the middle of October. 

If help is abundant and the weather good apples and 
pears should be picked and packed in the orchard, but 
with large crops this is not always possible and a part 
of the crop should be put into some cool, dry place 
like a north shed or barn floor (Fig. 98), where they 
may be packed in stormy weather. The sooner apples 
are sorted and packed and put into a cool place with 
even temperature, the better. 

Small Fruits. — Little time need be spent in the care 
of small fruits this month unless one has leisure. The 
old canes may be cut out from the raspberry and black- 
berry plantations, grapevines may be pruned as soon as 
the leaves fall, trellises repaired, etc., but this work can 
as well be delayed until there is more leisure. 

Poultry. — As cold weather comes on more care is 
needed with the pullets and laying hens. Keep them 
clean, warm and dry, give a variety of food and fresh 
water, and allow them to run on dry pleasant days as 
much as possible. Give them plenty of roost room. 
One cockerel should be allowed for each twelve to 
fifteen pullets. 

Bees. — Few flowers will be in bloom this month and 
the bees must depend upon their stores for food. It is 
best to remove all surplus honey in supers, and if the 



3o8 The Small Country Place 

supply is short in the frames below let them fill them up 
from partially filled sections, or supers. Watch for rob- 
bers and protect weak swarms by closing the mouth of 

the hives. ^ 

October. 

The Land. — This month is a good time to top dress 
grass land, especially on hilly lots w^here the manure 
will have time to wash in before winter sets in and the 
fine particles to settle into spaces about the grass roots. 
The soil, too, is warm, which tends to a growth of the 
grass roots while the tops are kept dormant by the 
frosty air. 

Late fall plowing on steep slopes is not advisable but 
upon level land will improve the texture of the soil and 
make it work up fine and mellow early in the spring. 
If a cover crop of peas and barley, oats, Japanese millet, 
etc., is upon the land it is best not to plow it under until 
spring as this cover prevents washing of the soil and 
keeps it light during the winter. 

Buildings. — The cold frosty nights remind us that we 
must get ready for winter, and the stables, outbuildings, 
and poultry houses must be put into order before the 
severe cold weather. 

The more permanent these improvements are made 
the better, yet all of these buildings can be made tidy 
and warm by a combination of building paper and 
laths or battens. Roofing materials may be put upon 
the outside and painted the color of the main buildings, 
and will present a very neat appearance. The green- 
houses should be looked over and all loose glass fastened 
in place. It pays to draw the sash bars on the outside 
with white lead and oil-paint every year. 

Roads and Walks. — Suggestions made for last month 
apply equally well for this. New roads and walks and 
repairs on old ones can be made at any time. 



Monthly Calendar 309 

Trees and Shrubs. — Many trees and shrubs can be 
more successfully transplanted this month than later 
this fall or next spring. At any time after the leaves 
begin to turn they may be transplanted. 

Root formation is more rapid at this time, while the 
soil is warm, and the atmosphere cold. In exposed 
places delicate trees and shrubs like magnolias, tulip 
trees, Japanese maples, etc., should be protected after 
planting by setting up pine boughs on the north and 
west sides and somewhat in among the branches. 

The Lawn. — The final mowing of the lawn may be 
made the last of the month, as it is not best to have a 
too heavy covering of old grass on the land over winter. 
After cutting, a light dressing of fine manure and grass 
seed will be all that is needed this fall. 

The Flower Garden. — Beds from which annuals and 
other plants have been removed should have a good 
coating of manure spaded in, and the borders neatly 
cut, and will be in fine condition for next spring plant- 
ing. Bulbs of hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, snowdrops, 
and even lilies may be planted, and irises, peonies, golden 
glow, poppies, etc., if these have not already been 
planted. 

The Vegetable Garden. — Manure spaded or plowed 
under at this time will put the land in fine condition 
for early spring planting. Beets and carrots should be 
dug and put into the cellar before severe freezing weather. 
To keep root vegetables from wilting in a dry cellar 
pack in slightly moistened soil or sand or in moist 
leaves, which keeps them better and is cleaner and more 
easily handled. The greenhouses should be in full run- 
ning order with carnations, violets, etc., and lettuce will 
be ready to transplant from the frames. 

The Orchard. — All winter apples should be picked 
as soon as fully grown and well colored. This time 



310 The Small Country Place 

varies in different seasons with Baldwins, etc., from 
the loth to 2oth of October in Eastern United States. 
The longer they can be left on the trees without waste 
by dropping or injury by frost, the larger and better 
colored they will be. Late picking lessens the labor of 
picking and sorting, as most of the wormy fruit has 
fallen. Late varieties of pears like Anjou, Winter Nelis, 
Hovey, etc., should also be left on the trees as long as 
possible, but severe freezing will injure them. If there 
is a mulch of hay or straw about the trunks of young 
trees, see that it is drawn away, and fresh soil or coal 
ashes packed about them. Where there are a large 
number of trees painting with fresh limewash, and Paris 
green, will be the cheapest and best protection from 
mice and rabbits. Apple, pear and plum trees are bet- 
ter planted in the fall, if it can be done this month and 
the soil is not too wet and soggy. 

Small Fruits. — Any weeds starting among the straw- 
berry plants should be hoed or pulled and carried off 
the land, as at this time they grow almost as readily on 
top as in the soil. This applies especially to chickweed, 
witch grass, etc. 

Raspberry, blackberry, and currant bushes can be 
more successfully planted in the fall than in the spring. 
By cutting the cane of the former down to about six 
inches, and placing a large forkful of manure over it, 
they will be protected and start very vigorously next 
spring. Cuttings of currants and grapevines will root 
more certainly if made early than later. Root cuttings 
of raspberries and blackberries should also be made this 
month and next. 

Poultry. — Fowls should have completed moulting by 
this time and be ready for laying. An abundance and 
variety of feed is necessary for the best results, but 
fattening food should be avoided. 



Monthly Calendar 311 

The "dry mash" system of feeding is very attractive, 
and should be given a trial. If successful it reduces the 
labor to the minimum. The best mixture perhaps has 
not been determined by practice for ordinary condi- 
tions, but probably equal quantities of shorts, gluten, 
linseed, ground oats, and com meal and scraps always 
before the fowls should be given a trial, with whole corn, 
barley and buckwheat, to be scattered in the litter. 
Oyster shells, grit and green feed should also be before 
the fowls all the time. 

Bees. — We must look after the supply of honey in 
the hives for winter's use, as little or no more will be 
gathered this fall. It is generally thought that there 
should be five or six frames well covered with bees and 
at least thirty pounds of honey at this time to enable 
a colony to go through the winter safely. The honey 
should be in such a position in the hive as to allow the 
bees to get at it in the coldest weather. 

November. 

The Land. — Work may be continued on the land as 
suggested for last month. Clearing up of all waste 
materials, burning the coarsest and composting the 
finer parts is always in order. Compost may be carted 
out and spread on level land, but on hilly land is best 
put in piles until spring. 

Buildings. — Repairs of the quarters for the stock 
should be completed before extreme cold weather 
comes on. 

Stock. — Young stock should be taken in from pasture 
from the first to the middle of the month. If the pas- 
ture is near by, they may be let out a short time in the 
middle of each day with advantage. 

Trees and Shrubs. — Planting may continue during the 
early part of the month if the soil will work up fine and 



312 



The Small Country Place 



mellow. Newly transplanted trees of large size should 
have supports of stakes or wire guys to keep the wind 
from swaying them back and forth and thus letting air 
down to the roots. Mounds of soil will help to support 
smaller trees. A mound of rich manure should be put 
about all ornamental trees and shrubs before the ground 
freezes. 

Pine boughs should be set up about the rhododendrons 
and other broad-leaved evergreens or any other tender 




Fig. 99 — Raising Turkeys Almost a Lost Art. November. 

trees and plants. Hemlock and spruce branches will not 
do for this, as the leaves soon drop off, but all species of 
pines, arbor-vitae, and junipers hold their leaves. Oak 
branches that retain their leaves all winter may be used 
in the same manner. 

The Lawn. — Keep the leaves raked from the lawn. 
If piled up in thick masses the grass roots under them 
are injured. They are worth much more than the cost 
of raking up for bedding, for litter, for poultry, and for 



Monthly Calendar 



313 



compost. They are very easily gathered by spreading 
out a large canvas or street horse blanket and raking 
them upon it. Then, taking hold of the four comers, a 
large quantity can be swung upon the shoulder and 
carried to the shed or stable. • 

Buildings. — Continue suggestion given last month 
until all buildings are snug and ready for winter. Look 
to the eave-troughs and gutters and keep them clear so 
that roof water may be carried quickly away. In using 
paper inside the poultry house cover the spaces between 
the rafters as well as the sides, and see that the ground 
for two or three feet away from the foundations is 
covered with hay or straw so that the frost cannot work 
through it under the floor. 

The Flower Garden. — There are always a few last 
things to be done in the garden if the weather permits. 
Roses should be banked up with soil or manure and the 
tops tied up in loose straw. All rubbish should be gath- 
ered up and put into the compost heap or brush pile. 
Most of the tops, leaves, etc., that come from this clean- 
ing up will in a year or so make good compost and it is a 
waste to bum it, when we would have only a few ashes 
of little value left. 

The Vegetable Garden. — Everything in the vegetable 
line should be under cover by the middle of this month. 
Cabbages, kale, sprouts, and turnips will often stand 
longer without injury but it is unsafe to leave them 
much later than this. Celery, if left out longer than the 
ist, should be banked to the top, covering nearly or 
quite all of the leaves after the middle of the month, 
but should be put into the pit or cellar on a cold, dry 
day. This crop in the home garden is often kept in the 
ground where grown until used. When the top of the 
ground has frozen an inch or so deep a light covering of 
hay is put over the whole bank, and when colder weather 



314 The Small Country Place 

comes on a little more is added, and so on until enough 
is on to prevent further freezing of the soil about the 
plants, when a few boards are put on to shed rain. 
When wanted, open one end of the row, take out what 
is needed for a week or so, and cover again. When skil- 
fully done this method is very satisfactory, is easier 
than digging and storing in cellar or pit, and the celery 
is rather more crisp. Parsnips and salsify are improved 
by .freezing, the starch in these roots being changed 
into sugar by the action of frost, and are often left out 
all winter. Such as are wanted for winter's use must be 
dug before the ground freezes, and to prevent wilting, 
which injuries them very much, they should be packed 
in sand or slightly moistened leaves. 

The Orchard. — Little work will need be done in the 
orchard this month, though the planting of young trees 
may still be done during the early part of it. Pruning, 
too, may be done if one has the leisure, but all cuts made 
now must be more thoroughly covered with paint than 
if done the latter part of winter. Young trees not pro- 
tected from mice should be painted with fresh limewash 
and Paris green. Don't use wash that has stood more 
than a few hours. 

Small Fruits. — Planting of the bush fruits may still 
continue up to the middle of this month. The canes 
of tender varieties of raspberries should be laid down 
and the tips covered with enough soil to hold them 
close to the ground. Bend toward the south, so that 
the sun's rays will strike the canes at the ends and not 
broadside. Tender varieties of grapes like Roger's 
Hybrids, lona, Niagara, Salem, Brighton, etc., will be 
benefited by laying on the ground and covering with a 
little soil. Cuttings may still be made and they may be 
planted or put into moist soil in a cold cellar until 
spring. The strawberry bed must be covered before 



Monthly Calendar 31^ 

severe freezing. Pine needles, coarse strawy manure, 
hay, straw, corn stalks, etc., may be used. Forest 
leaves often compact so as to cause injury. 

Poultry. — If egg producing is to be made profitable 
the fowls must be laying freely now while prices are at 
their highest. Keep stopping up the places where cold 
can get in but have as full ventilation as possible, with- 
out drafts. Have a store of green food, gravel and litter 
for use. Cabbages for the fowls may be stored on the 
north side of the houses and when freezing weather 
comes on leaves and straw thrown over them will 
enable one to get them out readily. Soft heads of cab- 
bage may be bought at from $1 to $3 per load, accord- 
ing to size. Paint roosts with limewash and kerosene 
for nits, and have plenty of dust for the fowls to wallow 
in to keep down lice. 

Bees. — Make all colonies snug for the winter. If 
there are only enough bees in a colony to cover five 
frames crowd those containing the most brood and honey 
together and put in a division board. If they have less 
than twenty-five pounds of honey, feed them enough 
sugar and water in the top of the hive to make up this 
amount. At the North the colonies should be kept in a 
dry, cool cellar, or have a box cover lined with hay put 
over them. Some only put a bag of hay in the super 
chamber. 

December. 

The Land. — Work suggested for last month may still 
be done if the ground is not frozen. Manure may be 
drawn out even if the ground is covered with snow. 

Buildings. — Continue to put the buildings in order for 
winter. If frost works into any of the cellars bank up 
with more hay or straw or use tarred, building, or roof- 
ing paper. The latter may be put on neatly against the 
underpinning either outside or inside. Have thermom- 



3.6 



The Small Country Place 



eters in every place where frost would do harm and 
watch them closely. A pan of water on the cellar bot- 
tom is a good thermometer. This will freeze over when 
32° is reached, and much before any vegetable or fruit 
crop will be injured. 

Roads and Walks. — Finishing up the work suggested 

for last month is 
about all there is to 
be done. When 
snow covers the 
ground small stakes 
|\ should be set up to 
mark the boundary 
of roads and walks, 
that the borders of 
lawns be not cut up 
by driving or walk- 
ing over them. 

Trees and Shrubs. 
— These need but 
little attention this 
month if suggestions 
for the previous 
months have been 
carried out. Orna- 
mental groves and 
wood lots may be 
improved by thinning out surplus and poor material 
for fire - wood. With even unskilled help very good 
work may be done, the owner or some one of experi- 
ence marking with blue chalk or crayon what and 
where to cut. 

The Lawn. — Pick up, clean up all leaves, and put on a 
dressing of fine manure, if this has not already been 
done. Coarse green manure is offensive and unsightly 




Fig. 100— a Christmas Tree Cut from the Top 
of a Norway Spruce to Force Growth Into 
the Lower Branches. December. 



Monthly Calendar 317 

and if grass seed is used with the fine compost it will 
have a much better effect. 

The Flower Garden. — Here, as with other parts of the 
home grounds, is a season of rest. Beds of bulbs that 
have not been covered, should have five or six inches of 
manure spread over the surface. 

The Vegetable Garden. — Little can be done in the vege- 
table garden, but the stored products should have 
attention and if any are decaying or wilting the cause 
should be removed. Apples keep best at an even tem- 
perature of about 33°; potatoes, 40°; squashes, 52°. A 
lantern or small kerosene stove may be needed in the 
storage room in extremely cold weather to keep the 
frost out. 

Small Fruits. — The raspberry plantation should be 
looked over, and if any canes have sprung up from the 
covering they should be laid down if the ground is not 
frozen. Should the covering have blown from the 
strawberry bed, put it back and throw a little soil, 
poles, or brush upon it to keep it in place. 

Poultry. — The great secret of success in producing 
eggs in winter is to have a warm house where the fowls 
can retire to feed and roost. They must have fresh air 
even if it is cold, and must have an abundance and 
variety of food. The days are short and the fowls 
should be started early in the morning by giving whole 
grain in the fitter and fresh water. The warm mash 
may be given at morning or night, if the dry mash is 
not found satisfactory. 

Bees. — Little can be done for the bees at this time, 
except, if out of doors, to see that the opening in front 
of the hive is not closed by ice, and the bees smothered. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Annuals 109-1 10 

Apples 13s, i3«. 150-155, 243 

harvesting 151 

keeping 151-152 

shipping 152-153 

varieties 150 

pests 153-154 

Apple trees, cost of 141 

in turf 141 

Apricots 179-180 

April, routine work for 285-288 

Arbors 95 

Asparagus 220-222 

Asters ,-.. ..^ .-.. . 106 

August, routine work for. . ;^^,^3 00-303 

Bam 44 

Beans 222-223 

Bees 267-269 

Beets 223 

Biennials 114 

Blackberries 198-202 

Brick houses 61 

Brooders 249 

Building Associations 52 

Buildings, of a country home. .22-23 

made tight and warm 45 

Bulbs 113. IIS 

Bush fruits 198-215 

Cabbages 223-225 

Calendar of routine work. .. 270-3 17 

Calves 263-265 

Capital required for a country 

home 29 

Carriage- house 44 

Carriages 266 

Carrots 227 

Cauliflowers 225-226 

Celery 227-230 

Cement 65, 68 

mixing 83 

Cement concrete houses 61-67 

Cherries i37. 180-181 

marketing 181 

varieties 181 

pests 181 

Climbers 96 

Cold frames 126-128 

Colony-house for poultry 242 

Concrete walks and drives 82 

Com, sweet 230-251 

Cows 257, 264 

breeds of 259-260 

Cultivators 131 

Currants 202 

varieties of 204 

pests 204-205 



PAGE 

] Dairying 257-260 

Deciduous trees 75-77. 87 

December, routine work for.. 3 15-3 17 

Decorating home grounds 78 

Drainage 18-19 

Drives 80-82 

Dwarf apple-trees 154-155 

Eggs 241, 252, 254 

Equipment for fruit-growing 131-134 
Evergreens 75-76, 86, 89 

February, routine work for. .275-280 

Feed for cows 258 

Fences 97 

Ferns 106 

Fertilizing 125-126. 191, 239 

Fires, wood 69 

Flower garden, the no 

Flowers upon the lawn 102 

Fodder 257 

Fruit growing 130-155 

Fruit trees 88 

in turf 123-124 

Furnace heat 70 

Garden, the 11 7-1 29 

plans for 11 9-1 2 1 

Gardening as a business 15 

Glass structures 217-218 

Gooseberries 205-206 

Grading 79 

Grafting 144-147 

Grapes 182-197 

cuttings 183 

girdling 193 

pruning 187-190 

marketing 192-193 

varieties 192 

pests 194-197 

Grasses 99 

Greenhouses 218 

Gutters 35 

Hardy herbaceous perennials 1 13-1 1 5 

Harnesses 266 

Harrows 131 

Heating 69-7 2 

Hedges 93 

Herbaceous plants no 

Hives 268 

Hoes 125, 132 

Home-seeking 16-30 

Honey 268 

Horse power 134 

Horse, the family 264-266 

Hot-beds 126-128, 218 

Houses of wood 55-57 

of stone, brick, or cement. . 58 
Hybrids 180 



319 



320 



Index 



Incubators. 



PAGE 

244, 248 

January, routine work for. . . . 270-274 

July, routine work for 295-300 

June, routine work for 292-295 

Keeping apples 150 

Labor, contract vs. day 53 

Ladder 155 

Land, suitable for growing. . . . 20-22 

Lawn-mowers 102 

Lawns 98-110 

Lettuce 23 1 

Location of houses 53 

Lumber 56 

Manure 44, 126 

March', routine work for 280-285 

Market gardening 2 16-240 

Markets 23-25 

May, routine work for 288-291 

Melons 231-232 

•Milking 258 

Milk supply 261-262 

Mixed plantings 1 18-122 



Nectarines. 
Nests 



[80-18] 



253-254 

November, routme work for . 311-315 

October, routine work for. . . 308-3 1 1 
Old trees, how preserved. ... 77,.! 5 7 

Onions 232-233 

Orchard, cost of 139-141 

Outbuildings 39 

Packing fruit 134 

Paint brushes 51 

Painting 47-49 

Pamts 4g_5o 

Peaches 137, 161, 165, 243 

harvesting 165 

marketing 166 

varieties 166 

pests 167-168 

Pears 137, 156-161, 243 

harvesting 158 

ripening 158 

shipping 158 

varieties 158 

p pests 159 

Pe^s... 233-234 

Perennials 106-109, 1 13-114 

Piazzas 38 

Pigeons 255-256 

1-^Jans tor garden 11 9-1 21 

Planting trees 84-87 

Plows 131 

Plums 137, 172-178, 243 

marketing 176 

varieties i-.6_j78 

„ pests 174-176 

Porches 38 

Potatoes 234-236 

Poultry 128-129 

Poultry-houses 43-44, 242-247 

keeping 247-256 

Pruning 74, 94, 96 

137. 142-150, 163-164, 173 
181, 187-190, 199-200, 203 



PACE 

Quinces 169-1 72, 243 

marketing 171 

varieties 171 

pests 172 

Raises 33. 132 

Raspberries 198-202 

Rhubarb 236-237 

Roads 25-26, 79-81 

Roofing 36 

Roofs 35 

Roosts 



253 

65, 67, 68 



Sand 

Sanitation 37 

Saws 133 

Scratching-sheds 43-44 

September, routine work for. .303—308 

Shears, pruning 133 

Shingles 36, 47 

Shingling walls of old buildings. . 46 

Shrubs 84, 89-90, 94-95 

Sills 32-35 

Soil 118, 130, 131, 136 

162, 170, 173, 205, 206, 217 

Spades 132 

Squashes 237-239 

Stables 44, 257-258, 265 

Stone houses 61 

Storing fruit and vegetables. ... 134 

Storm doors 38 

Strawberries 206-215 

planting 207-208 

harvesting 21 0-2 1 3 

varieties 213-214 

pests 214-215 

Summer-houses 95 

Swarming of bees 269 

Terraces 99 

Tile 81 

Tool-house, tool-room 39—42 

Tools 40-42, I 24, 144 

Training trees 170 

Trees 73, 76, 77, 78, 84 

88, 123, 137, 141-143, 162, 165 
Turnips 240 

Underdraining 80 

Vegetable garden 129 

Vegetables, testing new varieties. 122 

Ventilating stables, etc 45 

Verandas 38 

Vines, climbing 95 

Vineyards 183 

Walks 79-81 

concrete 82, no 

Walls 97 

Water Supply 36-38, 55 

Weeders 131 

Weed-killer 124 

Weeds 82 

Wild flowers 105 

Window-boxes 116 

Windows 55 

bay 38 

dormer 38 

Wooden houses 5 5-57 

Woodland 26 



